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ON THE WAY TO J ' ' FRONT IN '76 



A SCHOOL HISTORY OF 
THE UNITED STATES 



BY 
NATHANIEL WRIGHT STEPHENSON 

1: 

AND 

I ^ MARTHA TUCKER STEPHENSON 




GINN AN - =:OMPANY 

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 
ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO 



J 



COPYRIGHT, 1921, BY NATHANIEL WRIGHT STEPHENSON 

AND MARTHA TUCKER STEPHENSON 

ENTERED AT STATIONERS* HALL 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



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GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 



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^ PREFACE 

This book is intended for use in the upper grammar 
grades and in the junior high school. Its authors have borne 
in mind the double fact that while American schools still 
retain — it is to be hoped will always retain — a wholesome 
variety in their detail of instruction, they are nevertheless 
approaching a national conformity in main features. Espe- 
cially is this true in history. The time for a school course in 
American history truly nationalized, broadly speaking, both 
in matter and method has arrived. The recent discussions 
of the subject in the National Education Association, in the 
American Historical Association, and by a host of individual 
critics have cleared the atmosphere as never before. The 
World War has worked as a powerful solvent to precipitate 
a new consensus of opinion. 

History, first of all, is a study in cause and effect. This 
is true of its simplest forms no less than of its most complex. 
Always they are concerned with movement, with the estab- 
lishment of sequences. School history has a further limita- 
tion. The sequences which it aims to make intelligible are 
chiefly those that point toward present conditions, that help 
us to solve present problems. But it is of first importance 
to remember that there is more than one sort of problem in 
modern life to which history affords a clue. At least two 
great groups should be recognized. Obviously one of these 
groups — the one which has been so widely discussed that 
it may now be taken for granted — is chiefly economic. It 
includes all the complicated attempts of the modern state to 
put its house in order. All its problems at bottom are ques- 
tions of efficiency. Who doubts the importance of this 



iv SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

group of problems or the obligation upon us all to equip 
our children to meet them? But another group of modern 
problems is just as insistent and quite as difficult to solve. 
These are psychological. Granted that the modern citizen 
has acquired knowledge of what ought to be done to save 
and perfect our civilization, can he always be relied upon 
to use that knowledge, or if he uses it to do so unselfishly ? 
In our complex modern life the state has to compete with 
innumerable counter attractions that are forever luring the 
citizen away from public duty. Therefore it is not enough 
to give our children a knowledge of how the state may be 
served in the best way : we have failed absolutely if we 
do not also create in them a desire to discharge that service. 
The former purpose may be accomplished by resolving the 
life around us into its elements and discussing them one by 
one ; the latter, only by building up a sense of the state as 
a living, human unit and conceiving it as an object of 
affection. No history-teaching is truly sound that does not 
give to young students this vivid sense of a great, continuing, 
single thing— OUR COUNTRY— which is entitled to their 
love and devotion. 

The only sure way to do this is to make them feel the 
persistence through sunshine ancj shadow, through peace 
and war, through failure and through success, of that en- 
folding national life which has gone on and will con- 
tinue to go on yesterday, today, tomorrow. It is impossible 
to overstate the obligation to establish in the young 
mind this sense of national life as a psychological unity. 
And one may feel this to the full without in the least reducing 
that other obligation requiring us to struggle with the diffi- 
culties of the hour — social and economic — in all their 
grimness. Through the former effort may be generated 
the energy to sustain the latter. The conjunction of these 
two basal purposes should determine the selection of sub- 
ject matter. Merely local or accidental matter should be 



PREFACE V 

minimized and, so far as used, should serve the one great 
purpose of making real the nation as a whole, of assembling 
all its features in one diversified image. And all the matter 
of any sort should be so related to the present that every boy 
and girl — East, West, North, SoutH — may be helped to feel, 
with regard to all that lives out of our past, ''This is mine." 
What could serve better as a touchstone for all textbooks 
of history than these fine sentences from Professor Allen 
Johnson of Yale University : 

We have heard much in the years gone by of the practical value 
of mathematics and of their use in developing the reasoning 
faculties. And yet the statesman who should reckon with men as 
the mathematician with his units and factors would soon go under. 
Say what one will of the exact sciences, how can one find in them 
any hint of the motives that sway men in the active world ? But 
it is just this that the study of history should do for our future 
citizens. In the story of the rise and fall of men and nations they 
may read, if they be taught to read aright, a prophecy for the 
time to come. Not that history ever repeats itself, — the old 
adage I believe fallacious, — but human nature remains essen- 
tially the same throughout the ages ; and no boy or girl can read 
histories in whose pages men and women seem to appear in the 
flesh without deepening his knowledge of the human soul and of 
the conditions influencing the ebb and flow of human destiny. 
And if in this process of training for power ^ the really essential 
knowledge of the past and a wiser, soberer, finer patriotism is not 
distilled the fault lies in him who teaches. 

^The italics are not in the original. 



CONTENTS 

PART ONE: THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A FREE 
COUNTRY 

FIRST DIVISION. HOW EUROPEANS CAME 
TO AMERICA 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Three Great Migrations 3 

II. The Beginning of the Struggle over the New World 20 

SECOND DIVISION. HOW THE ENGLISH FOUNDED 
A NATION 

III. The Thirteen Colonies 28 

IV. Old Times in the Colonies 94 

V. New France 109 

VI. The Wars for Existence 118 

VII. American Development to 1763 134 

THIRD DIVISION. HOW THE BRITISH EMPIRE BROKE 

IN TWO 

VIII. Troubles inside the Empire 152 

IX. The Revolutionary War 176 

FOURTH DIVISION. HOW THE NEW REPUBLIC BECAME 
A PROSPEROUS COUNTRY 

X. Forming a New Government 206 

XI. The First President of the United States . . . 219 

XII. Our Country in Washington's Day 227 

XIII. Federalists and Republicans 239 

XIV. A New Question makes a New Party 265 

XV, The Triumph of Democracy ix America 275 

vii 



viii SCHOOJ. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

PART TWO: THE BUILDING OF A GREAT POWER 

FIFTH DIVISION. HOW THE UNION VERY NEARLY 
BROKE IN TWO 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XVI. Texas, Oregon, California . 291 

XVII. Social and Industrial Changes 308 

XVIII. The Slavery Issue 320 

XIX. North and South at War 332 

XX. The Reconstruction of the Union 373 

SIXTH DIVISION. HOW THE AMERICANS BECAME 
A UNITED NATION 

XXI. The Dev^elopment of the West 382 

XXII. Industrial Problems and Money Problems . . . 392 

XXIII. The United States as a World Power .... 410 

SEVENTH DIVISION. HOW OUR COUNTRY BECAME 
THE CHAMPION OF DEMOCRACY 

XXIV. The World War 428 

XXV. Our Fight for Democracy 450 

XXVI. The Progress of the American Nation .... 480 

XXVII. Problems of Today 525 

APPENDIX 

The Declaration of Independence i 

The Constitution of the United States v 

Chronological Summary xxii 

Table of Presidents and Vice Presidents xxiii 

Table of States xxiv 

INDEX XXV 



LIST OF LARGER ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

On the Way to the Front in "76 (in colors) ,...;. Frontispiece 

Columbus appealing to Isabella 2 

Queen Elizabeth knighting Sir Walter Raleigh ....... 24 

Homes of the Washington Family 46 

Peter Minuit buying Manhattan from the Indians 68 

Weighing a Bride in Colonial Money 100 

Washington at Fort Le Boeuf 1 26 

Eliza Lucas on her Plantation 136 

" Give me Liberty or give me Death " 163 

" Signing the Declaration of Independence," by Trumbull . . . . 172 

The Development of the Flag 185 

Fight between the Serapis and the BoiilwuDiie Richard . . . . i go 

Daniel Boone on the Wilderness Trail . •. . 208 

Washington's Inaugural Procession 220 

Looms, Old and New 232 

Opening the Erie Canal 260 

Webster's Reply to Hayne 270 

First Coeducational Commencement, Oberlin College (1 84 1) . . . 280 

The Capitol, Washington, D. C 285 

American Troops advancing in the Marne Valley in 191 8 (in colors) 291 

Settlers in Texas fleeing before Santa Anna 292 

Development of Shipbuilding 311 

Confederate Flags 333 

Lincoln with McClellan and his Generals 352 

Lee and Jackson 358 

Making Camp for the Night 384 

Indians skirmishing in the Fight against Custer 386 

Blowing up the Bridge at Chateau-Thierry 466 

The Stars and Stripes over the Fortress of Ehrenbreitstein . . . 475 

Progress of Highway Transportation 489 

Mills, Old and New 499 

Lincoln, by Saint Gaudens 507 

The City of Washington, D. C 513 

Steps in Transcontinental Transportation 519 



LIST OF MAPS IN COLORS 

PAGE 

The United States in i 783 206 

The United States in 1792 224 

United States in 18 10 248 

The Acquisition of the Far West (1845-1850) 296 

The Confederate States in 1861 336 

Successive Stages of the Settlement of the Mississippi Valley and 

the Southwest Plain 388 

The United States Today 426 

Physiographic Divisions and Principal Products of the United States 494 



LIST OF THE LARGER MAPS IN 
BLACK-AND-WHITE 

Map showing Routes of Eight Important Voyages 17 

Indian Families and Tribes 31 

English Possessions and the French Explorations and Settlements . 115 

Map of the French and Indian Wars 125 

Eastern North America just previous to the Revolution . . . . 155 

General Map of the Revolutionary War i 78 

Territorial Growth of the United States 485 

Indian and Western Trails 490 

The Greater Railroads 491 



A SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE 
UNITED STATES 

PART ONE: THE ESTABLISHMENT OF 
A FREE COUNTRY 



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AN ANCIENT MIGRATION 



FIRST DIVISION. HOW EUROPEANS 
CAME TO AMERICA 



CHAPTER I 

THE THREE GREAT MIGRATIONS 

1. The Strange Thing in American History. In two re- 
spects the history of our country is unlike the history of 
many other countries : first, every white person now living 
in the United States is descended from Europeans ; second, 
we know when and how the Europeans crossed the Atlantic 
and settled America. 

Our knowledge of their coming does not rest on tradition ; 
their coming took place since we began to keep accurate 
record of what people do. In some countries the ancestors 
of the present inhabitants have occupied the land during 
thousands of years — so long that all record of whence they 
came originally has been lost. The famous Chinese nation 
was living in China before the earliest book was written, on 

3 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



the same land where the Chinese live today. You can under- 
stand the history of China without looking outside its own 
boundaries. It is different with the United States. When 
our forefathers came across the sea and founded a new 
nation they brought with them habits and ideas which had 

belonged to them and 
their fathers for a great 
length of time. Many of 
these habits and ideas are 
as strong in us today as 
in our remote ancestors 
who lived in far-off coun- 
tries long, long ago. There- 
fore, in order to understand 
our history we should know 
of many things that oc- 
curred before this repub- 
lic was dreamed of. We 
should even look back into 
the far past and see where 
and how lived our earliest 
ancestors of whom we have 
definite knowledge. 

2. Where American His- 
tory Began. The place 
where our forefathers lived 
was the grassy plain of western Asia north of the Cas- 
pian Sea. During the time when their home was in Asia 
they were mainly herdsmen. They had no cities, and very 
few of them had begun to dig and sow and raise crops. 
They got their food chiefly from their flocks and herds. Four 
or five thousand years ago they had become so numerous that 
the pasture land of their old Asiatic home could not feed 
all their cattle and supply them all with food. Thereupon 
some of these Aryan, or Indo-European, people — they are 




STATUE OF ATHENA, THE PROTECTING 
GODDESS OF ANCIENT ATHENS 



THE THREE GREAT MIGRATIONS 



called by both names — left their earliest home and wandered 
away in search of new homes. A great number went to the 
southeast and in time reached northern India, where their 
descendants still live; others went southward and became 
ancestors of the great nation of the Persians. Both the 
Hindus of India and the Persians are 
our distant kinsmen — but very dis- 
tant. Much nearer relatives of ours 
are all those people whose ancestors 
formed part of a third body of early 
Aryan wanderers. This third body 
turned toward the west, made their 
way into Europe, and became known 
as Europeans. 

3. How our Forefathers became Civ- 
ilized. When the wanderers came into 
Europe they broke up into several 
groups and continued their wander- 
ings in various directions. All of them 
were barbarians. None knew how to 
read or write. Some who settled 
among the great forests of northern 
Europe remained barbarians for cen- 
turies afterwards ; others, more for- 
tunate, took a southerly course, across 
the Danube River to the Mediterra- 
nean. There they found cities and 
wealthy people, with beautiful houses, 
stately temples, and ships upon the 
sea. By these people in the cities 
along the Mediterranean the southerly wanderers were civi- 
lized. When this took place what we know as the first great 
migration of the Aryans had reached its end. 

4. The Greatness and the Fall of the Ancient World. The 
first group of European Aryans that became great and 




STATUE REPRESENTING 
THE AMERICAN REPUB- 
LIC, BY DANIEL CHESTER 
FRENCH, AFTER HE HAD 
STUDIED THE FAMOUS 
STATUES OF GREECE 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



powerful were called Greeks. Around the ^gean Sea the> 
became so powerful that those older peoples who had taughl 
them to live in cities submitted to their rule and in time were 
glad to learn their language, to accept their customs, anc 
to be known by their name. The ideas of these famous 
Greeks and the scientific discoveries which they made, to- 
gether with the arts anc 
crafts which began amon^ 
the older peoples who were 
their teachers, formed the 
beginning of what we cal' 
our ''civilization"; that is 
all those ideas and customs 
which we have developed 
since the time when w( 
ceased to be barbarians. 

For a long time the 
Greeks were the greatest 
people in the world. Ther 
their power declined anc 
another group of Aryans 
became the leaders of the 
nations. These were the 
Romans, whose ancestors 
speaking the Latin language 
had long inhabited central Italy. The Romans gradually con- 
quered and made into one great empire all the countries sur- 
rounding the Mediterranean and also the northwest of Europe 
— what is now Switzerland, France, and Belgium, togethei 
with the greater part of the island of Great Britain. The 
northern boundary of their empire ran along the two greal 
rivers, the Rhine and the Danube. The Greeks, who were 
included in this vast dominion, were the school-teachers, sc 
to speak, of all the other peoples, while the Romans were 
the rulers. 




A ROMAN THEATER 



THE THREE GREAT MIGRATIONS 7 

During many generations the civilization of the Roman 
Empire was undisturbed, but at last a change came. Those 
wanderers who had settled in the North — distant kinsmen 
of the ones who had turned southward — were still uncivi- 
lized. They were living in the Northern forests much as 
their ancestors had lived in Asia. They had become nu- 
merous. The forests were filled with fierce, hardy barba- 
rians, and the old problem of finding food for them all had 




THE FORUM, OR PUBLIC SQUARE, OF ANCIENT ROME 



again to be met. And then what happened long before in 
Asia was repeated — some of the barbarians began to move 
away from their forests, seeking new homes elsewhere.^ 

The barbarians had heard many tales of the wealth and 
splendor of the Roman Empire. Shouting their war songs 

1 These were Teutonic peoples. Those Teutons who made their way into 
the empire mixed with their southerly and westerly kinsmen, who civilized 
them. There is more or less Teutonic blood in the people of Italy, France, 
Spain, and the British Isles. To the Teutons who stayed at home in the 
Netherlands and Germany civilization was carried by traders and mission- 
aries when peace returned to Europe after the second migration (section 5), 



8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

they poured out of the forests and sought to fight their way 
across the Rhine and the Danube. Many times they were 
beaten back, but they returned, and returned again, and yet 
again, each time more furiously than before. A time came 
when the imperial armies could hold them back no longer. 
They burst through the fortifications that protected the 
Roman boundary. It was like the bursting of a gigantic 
dam. Into the civilized world they poured^ — a torrent of 
pitiless warriors, spreading death and destruction wherever 
they went. 

5. The Second Migration. This overflow of the northern 
barbarians spread from one end of the Roman world to 
the other. The invaders settled in the regions they had 
desolated, — where the cities had been burned, where many 
of the people had been killed, — and thus new nations 
were formed. Fortunately the barbarians were not able 
to destroy everything, nor numerous enough to kill every- 
body, in the ancient world. Probably they repeated very 
nearly the experience of those earlier wanderers who had 
come into southern Europe so many centuries before ; that 
is, when the fury of the fighting was gone by they began 
to take lessons from the educated and refined people they 
had conquered. They quickly saw that these people knew 
thousands of things of which they were ignorant. Soon the 
invaders were taking lessons of their beaten enemies. Before 
long the ideas, the customs, the religion, the arts and crafts, 
of the ruined old world were being learned by the newcomers, 
and civilization took a fresh start. 

6. The Third Migration. Again centuries went by while 
Europe lived a fairly settled life without any great shifting 
of the European peoples ; and then a third great movement 
began. In this third migration European peoples crossed 
the Atlantic and planted a group of new nations on its west- 
ern shores. They transplanted to new soil the civilization 
of Europe. The third migration resembled the first and 



THE THREE GREAT MIGRATIONS 9 

second, because, like them, it was the attempt of people dis- 
satisfied with their way of living to find new homes in which 
they would be happier than in their old homes. It differed 
from both the others in two respects : first, it was a move- 
ment of people who were already civilized and who, there- 
fore, took with them habits and ideas which were not 
likely to change; second, it was a movement into wild 
countries where there was no civilized population with habits 
and ideas superior to those of the invaders. 

The third migration did not occur all at once. The 
earliest attempt of a European people to cross the Atlantic 
took place nearly a thousand years ago (section 7), and 
though it led to the first discovery of America no permanent 
colony was established on the western continent. The migra- 
tion can hardly be said to have started until long afterwards, 
when America was discovered a second time by Christopher 
Columbus at the close of the fifteenth century. The next 
two centuries witnessed the greater part of the third 
migration. European nations colonized the New World. 
By the middle of the eighteenth century European civiliza- 
tion was well established all along the American shores of 
the Atlantic. 

7. The Earliest American Exploration. The very begin- 
ning of the movement across the Atlantic grew out of a 
civil war in Norway. The Norwegians — also called the 
Norsemen— were descendants of Aryans who had settled in 
the Far North and had not shared in the second migration. 
They were among the freest people in the world. When 
their king, Harold the Fair-haired, attempted to curtail 
their freedom many of the boldest of them rebelled. These 
bold men, whom we call the Vikings, went aboard their ships 
and sailed away to Iceland. There, on the edge of the 
Arctic Ocean, they founded a famous little nation, a new 
Norway, which exists at this day. A hundred years later 
a daring Icelander, Eric the Red, led his countrymen still 



10 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



farther across the unknown sea and founded a settlement in 
Greenland. Eric's son, Leif the Lucky, determined to know 
where the ocean ended. He sailed to the southwest and was 
the first European who saw the coast of North America. 
About the year looo Leif and his sailors made a landing 




LEIF THE LUCKY NEARING LAND 

on the shore of a great bay, probably where now stands 
the city of Boston. They found so many wild grapes that 
they named the new country Mnland, or Vineland. 

8. Christopher Columbus ; Exploration in the Fifteenth Cen- 
tury. But Leif, unlike his father, did not found a colony. 
Eric's own colony in Greenland did not prosper, and after 
a while it was broken up. Nearly five hundred years went 
by before another and much more famous explorer crossed 
the Atlantic. This later discoverer of America was born in 
the old city republic of Genoa about the year 1450 and was 
named Christopher Columbus. 

During the lifetime of Columbus great changes were 
taking place all over Europe. It was a time when old ideas 



THE THREE GREAT MIGRATIONS 



II 



were passing away and new ideas were forming. Especially 
was it a time when great changes occurred in commerce. 
Nothing was more valuable in those days than the trade 
between Europe and eastern Asia, especially India. It was 
controlled chiefly by the republics of Genoa and Venice, 
whose ships carried European 
products to the eastern Medi- 
terranean ports — to Alexandria 
and to Constantinople. There 
the Venetians and the Genoese 
exchanged their goods for silks 
and spices that had been 
brought from China and India 
either by way of the Red Sea 
and Egypt or overland on 
camels, in long slow-moving 
caravans. These four Medi- 
terranean seaports — Venice, 
Genoa, Alexandria, Constanti- 
nople — formed the four cor- 
ners, so to speak, of the business 
world in those days. The Med- 
iterranean traders dominated the commerce of Europe. They 
took oriental products to the Far North ; they were so rich 
that they lent money as a business and thus were the 
beginners of modern banking. 

In the fifteenth century the Mediterranean cities lost their 
control of European business, which passed into the hands 
of countries bordering on the Atlantic. No more momentous 
change has taken place in European history. It opened early 
in the century, when the energetic little Portuguese nation 
began exploring the Atlantic Ocean. A son of the king of 
Portugal, Prince Henry the Navigator, established the first 
school of scientific seamanship and persuaded many sailors 
to undertake perilous voyages upon unknown waters. It 




A VENETIAN GALLEY 



12 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

was not easy to overcome their fears. Strange tales were 
believed about the Atlantic. Toward the south it was sup- 
posed to be boiling hot. Many a sailor was firm in the 
notion that at times monsters arose out of its depths and 
destroyed ships in the twinkle of an eye. Nevertheless Prince 
Henry persevered. The Azores and the Canary Islands were 




SOUTHERN. ROUTE 
MIDDLE ROUTE + 
NORTHERN ROUTE. 



ROUTES OF TRADE BETWEEN INDIA AND CITIES OF SOUTHERN EUROPE 



discovered. The Tropic of Cancer was passed (1434), and 
the story of a boiling tropical sea was disproved. At last Bar- 
tholomew Diaz sailed past the Cape of Good Hope (1487) 
and thus opened a new route for trade between Europe and 
Asia. Another great sailor, Vasco da Gama, carried the 
Portuguese flag to India (1498). From that day the Atlantic 
nations, trading by sea with India and China, had a great 
advantage over the Mediterranean nations. The latter grad- 
ually declined in wealth and importance. The Atlantic na- 
tions took their places as the chief commercial powers.^ 

' Until very recently it was thought that the overland trade between 
Europe and Asia was broken up by the Turkish conquest of Constantinople 
(1453) and that the Portuguese aimed to recover the lost trade. If this 



THE THREE GREAT MIGRATIONS 



13 



While these great events were taking place Christopher 
Columbus was growing up. His father was poor, and when 
still a little boy Columbus went to sea to become a sailor. 




THE KNOWN WORLD IN 1490 

At that time, though ignorant people still believed that the 
earth was flat, educated people were beginning to think that 

were true there would have been a period between 1453 and 1498 when new 
Indian products would not have reached Europe and those on hand would 
have risen in price; but such was not the case. Furthermore, the Turks, 
instead of closing the Eastern trade routes, made a commercial treaty with 
Venice. The ruin of Venetian and Genoese trade was not the cause but the 
result of the Portuguese discovery of the sea routes to India. Portugal 
agreed to divide all the new commerce and all the new countries with Spain. 
Acting under the direction of Pope Alexander VI the two countries fixed 
upon a line on the map three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape 
Verde Islands (1494). Portugal was to have everything to the east of that 
line, Spain everything to the west. The line of demarcation ran through 
Brazil (see map, p. 17). 



14 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

it was round. An astronomer of Florence, Toscanelli, made 
a tolerably correct calculation of the earth's size. Columbus, 
when he had become an experienced sailor, accepted Tos- 
canelli's views and concluded that the most sensible way to 
reach India by sea was to sail west. Of course he had no 
suspicion that an unknown country lay upon the far side of 
the Atlantic midway between Europe and Asia. He made 
up his mind he would sail westward until he came to India. 

But where was Columbus to find the men and the ships 
for such a voyage ? Sailors were still afraid to venture forth 
straight west in order to find the far side of the ''shoreless" 
sea. Only the sovereigns of Europe had the power to com- 
pel sailors to risk the voyage ; only sovereigns had the money 
to provide the ships. And for a long while the sovereigns 
would not listen to Columbus. The king of Portugal was 
satisfied with what his own men were doing; others were 
too busy with great wars. But at length the queen of Spain, 
Isabella of Castile, consented to provide Columbus with 
three small ships, the Nina, the Pmta, and the Santa Maria. 
With these he sailed from Palos in Spain, August 3, 1492. 

9. The Voyage of Columbus. Columbus headed for the 
Canary- Islands. Thus far the ocean was familiar to his 
sailors, but when Columbus passed the Canaries and steered 
straight into the sunset, when the islands faded below the 
eastern horizon, the fears of the sailors began to master 
them. Their tiny ships seemed to be mere specks in a vast 
circle of unknown sea. A great east wind caught them and 
drove them furiously over thundering waves. The fear 
in their hearts gave place to rage, and they plotted to seize 
Columbus and throw him into the sea. Suddenly, overhead, 
they saw a flock of birds ; then, floating in the water, a 
branch with berries on it ; then a piece of wood that looked 
as if it had been carved with a knife. What could this mean 
but that there was land ahead ? The ocean was not shore- 
less after all. Like the lifting of a cloud their fears vanished. 



THE THREE GREAT MIGRATIONS 



IS 



That night they thought they saw a Hght moving on the 
horizon. Early the next morning (October 12, 1492), as the 
day brightened across the sea, they saw a low green shore 
only a few miles to the west. It was one of the islands 
which we know today as the Bahamas. Columbus landed 
on it, set up the flag of Spain, and named the island San 
Salvador. Thinking his long voyage had brought him near 
the coast of India he called the natives of the island Indians. 




Columtus sailed Aug- 3d, ti-"? 







MAP OF COLUMBUS S ROUTE ON HIS FIRST VOYAGE 



10. Later Life of Columbus. Columbus returned to Spain, 
was given more ships and men, and made three other voy- 
ages across the Atlantic. On one of these he discovered the 
mainland of South America. Each time he came home people 
were eager to know whether he had reached the wealthy 
cities of India. Each time he had to admit that he had seen 
only wild land inhabited by naked savages. The Spaniards 
were bitterly disappointed by his reports of the New World. 
They kept asking, ^^ Where are the silks, the gold, the 
precious stones, he was to bring back ? " He became unpop- 
ular, and in his last years was cruelly neglected. He died 
lonely and almost forgotten (1506). 

11. How America got its Name. In the days when the 
fame of Columbus was under a cloud the New World was 
given a name. It was not formed, as one might have sup- 
posed, from the name of Columbus, but from that of a much 



1 6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

less important man — Americus Vespucius of Florence. This 
man crossed the Atlantic not long after Columbus and wrote 
a book on his experiences. The book is very entertaining, for 
Vespucius was a clever writer. He belittled Columbus and 
made much of himself. It is thought today that he gave 
wrong dates for his voyage in order to appear to have seen 
the mainland of America before Columbus did. He tells 
thrilling stories of adventures with cannibals, one of whom 
boasted he had eaten three hundred human bodies, and he 
writes charming descriptions of the tropical forests, — the 
birds, brilliant as flying rainbows, the wonderful flowers, the 
magnificent trees. 

This book made a great impression on a learned man, 
Martin Waldseemiiller, who lived in St. Die, which is now a 
part of France. He made the suggestion that the new world 
be called America, in honor of Americus (1507). The sug- 
gestion was taken up by the map-makers. Before long a 
map was published on which the name '^ America" was used. 
Gradually the new word was accepted by everyone. 

12. America found to be separate from Asia ; Balboa ; 
Magellan. But still Europeans had a mistaken idea of what 
had been discovered. When the name ''America" was in- 
vented, the land to which it was given was supposed to be a 
great island close to Asia. The first step toward clearing up 
this mistake was made by a Spanish explorer, Balboa. He 
crossed the Isthmus of Panama and looked out upon the 
Pacific Ocean (1513). Soon afterwards a very great sailor, 
Magellan, set out (1519) on a voyage that is almost as famous 
as the voyage of Columbus and which gave to the world its 
first correct idea of the globe. Magellan rounded South 
America and crossed the Pacific to the Philippine Islands. 
There the great sailor was killed in a fight with the natives, 
but some of his men continued the voyage and at length 
got back to Spain — the first men who ever sailed clear 
round the world. 



1 8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

SUMMARY 

American history begins with the experiences of our remote 
barbarian ancestors in southwestern Asia. From their original 
home these Aryans, or Indo-Europeans, moved away in three great 
migrations. In the first migration a portion of them took posses- 
sion of the continent of Europe. Those who settled along the 
Mediterranean were quickly civilized and in course of time were 
all united in the vast Roman Empire. Meanwhile their northerly 
kinsmen remained barbarians. In the second migration these 
northern barbarians overran and destroyed the Roman Empire. 
Centuries afterward, when the northern barbarians in turn had 
been civilized, the European peoples again became restless. Then 
followed the third migration, in which our ancestors crossed the 
Atlantic, discovered a new country, and took possession of it. The 
name of the new country does not commemorate its discoverer, 
Christopher Columbus, but the first man who wrote about it, 
Americus Vespucius. At first it was supposed to be part of Asia. 
Not until Balboa discovered the Pacific, and the sailors of INIagel- 
lan had sailed round the globe, was it understood that a new 
world had been discovered. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

Note. Books especially recommended are starred. 

For the Teacher: *Breasted, Ancient Times \ Robinson, Medieval 
and Modern Times; ^WLYiiom, Beginnings of Modern Europe; Freeman, 
The English People in its Three Homes; *Fiske, The Discovery of 
America, chaps, ii-vii, x; Major, Select Letters of Cfllnmbus \ *Riciiman, 
77/1? Spanish Conquerors (Chronicles of America) ; Bassett, History of the 
United States, 23-34. 

For the Pupil : Andrews, Ten Boys who lived 071 the Road frotn 
Long Ago to Now, chaps, i-vii ; Atkinson, An Introduction to American 
History, chaps, i-xvi ; Kingslev, The Heroes; Tappan, The Story of the 
Creek People; Arnold, Stories of Ancient Peoples; Hall, Men of Old 
Greece and Viking Tales; Harding, The City of the Seven Hills and 
The Story of the Middle Ages; Lanier, The Boys' E'roissart; Lansing, 
Mediaeval Builders of the Modem World; Atherton, The Adventures 
of Marco Polo; HiGGlNSON, Young Eolk's Book of American Explorers', 
McMuRRV, Pioneers of Land and Sea; Ober, Heroes of American 



THE THREE GREAT MIGRATIONS 19 

History (volumes on Columbus, Balboa, Magellan) ; Lawler, The Story 
of Columbus and Magellafi ; Haaren and Poland, Famous Men of 
Modern Times. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

Note. The topics that require special preparation are bracketed. When 
answers to questions necessitate the combination of several sections of the 
text, the section numbers are given. In all map drawings both teacher and 
pupil will be greatly assisted by *Atwood, Allen, and Robinson's Practical 
Map Exercises in Geography and History : Western Hemisphere. 

I. Where did our forefathers Hve originally? [2. Describe their 
mode of life. (See Breasted, Ancient Times, 171-175; Andrews, Ten 
Boys, 1-2 1.)] 3. Over what parts of the world, so far as you know, 
have the Aryans, or Indo-Europeans, spread (sections 2, 3, 5, 6)? 
4. When we say that our civilization began in Greece, what do we mean ? 
What do we owe to the Greeks and Romans? [5. Describe the Hfe of 
an ancient Greek and compare it with your own. (See Breasted, 221- 
250; Andrews, 45-78; Kingsley, The Heroes.)^ 

[6. Describe the life of a citizen of the Roman Empire and compare 
it with your own. (See Breasted, 652-658; Andrews, 70-114.)] 7. In 
what way does the second migration resemble the first ? 8. What was 
accomplished by the third migration ? 9. In what respect did it differ 
from the other two ? 

[10. Make plain this difference by showing how an immigrant in 
the United States today is changed by his new surroundings as our fore- 
fathers were in the first and second migrations, but not in the third. 
(The teacher should indicate some of the simpler ways in which the 
society the immigrant enters at once begins to work a transformation.)] 
II. How did Europe trade with Asia at the opening of the fifteenth 
century ? 

[12. Describe a commercial journey to China or India long ago. 
(See Fiske, The Discovery of America (chap, iii), Archer, Stories of 
Exploration and Discovery (chap, iii), or Atherton, The Adventures 
of Marco Polo.)] 13. What great changes in trade relations took 
place in the fifteenth century? 14. How was it made possible for 
Columbus to cross the Atlantic ? 

[15. Give an account (a)" of the early Hfe of Columbus, or (6) of 
what he knew when he sailed, or (c) of his ships. (See Fiske, The Dis- 
covery of America (chaps, v-vi), Channing, Ujtited States (chap, ii), 
Lawler, Columbtis, or Ober, Columbus.)] 16. How was America named ? 
17. How was it proved that America was not a part of Asia? 



•ai*i.yi«i.Y4yiy.i.y'iy.iy'i«i.yi*iy.iw.y.iyi 




Raleigh's expedition landing at roanoke 



CHAPTER II 



THE BEGINNING OF THE STRUGGLE OVER THE NEW WORLD 



13. Effects of the Discovery of America; Spain enriched. 
We have seen that the first effect of the discovery of Amer- 
ica was a great disappointment (section lo), but before 
long this gave place to joy. The change was caused by the 
discoveries of two celebrated Spaniards : Cortes, who found 
and conquered Mexico (1521); and Pizarro, who conquered 
Peru and built the city of Lima (1535). In these countries 
they found enormous treasure of gold and silver. In Peru, 
for example, there was a temple plated all over with sheets 
of gold. All this the Spaniards carried off. They also took 
possession of the mines from which the Peruvians and 
Mexicans had dug the treasure. Gold and silver were now 
sent in shiploads *o Spain. As a result Spain, which had 
hitherto been a poor country, became the richest in Europe. 
Spaniards rushed to America to find more treasure. 

14. Later Spanish Explorers. Among these later Spanish 
explorers was Ponce de Leon, who was the first European 
to visit Florida — so named because De Leon landed on 



THE STRUGGLE OVER THE NEW WORLD 



21 



Easter Sunday (1513), which the Spaniards called by the 
beautiful name Pascua Florida, 'Hhe Feast of Flowers." 

From Florida a party of gold seekers led by Hernando de 
Soto set out to explore the great forests where are now the 
Gulf- states of our Union, For nearly two years they went 
on and on, always hoping to find gold. They never found it, 
but probably they were the first white men who beheld 




DE SOTO'S EXPEDITION IN THE EAST AND CORONADO'S IN THE WEST 

the Mississippi ( 1 54 1 ) .' They suffered untold hardships and 
their leader died. His men buried his body by sinking it 
from the side of a canoe into the depths of the great river. 

Still another Spaniard who sought for gold in our present 
territory was Coronado. He started from Mexico (1540) 
and made his way as far north as Kansas, where he looked 
with amazement upon herds of buffalo. He also discov- 
ered the wonders of the Grand Caiion of the Colorado 
River. But what he had come for — gold — he did not find. 



^ Perhaps near the spot now called De Soto Front, in northwestern 
Mississippi. 



22 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The oldest city inside the present limits of the United 
States — the city of St. Augustine, Florida — was built by the 
Spaniards (1565). It was a walled city, and there, to this 
day, may be seen the old Spanish gates and fortifications. 

15. The French begin to compete with the Spaniards. In 
the same year as the founding of St. Augustine the European 
nations began a long and terrible struggle over America 




A SPANISH SETTLEMENT IN FLORIDA (ST. AUGUSTINE) 
From an old engraving 



— each trying to get as much as possible of the New 
World for itself. The struggle was opened by a battle 
between the Spaniards and the French. Frenchmen had 
attempted to form a settlement on St. John's River in Flor- 
ida. The governor of Florida, Pedro Menendez, marched 
against the French, took them by surprise, and put most of 
them to death. A very few of the French escaped to the 
woods and at last got back to France. 

16. The English become Rivals of Spain. Strange to say, 
France did not at once retaliate upon Spain. The fact is 
explained in part by a terrible civil war that broke out in 
France about that time. It was England that now came 
forward as the competitor of Spain. 



THE STRUGGLE OVER THE NEW WORLD 



23 




CABOT MEMORIAL 
STAMP 



The English had been the first to rival Spain in exploration 

after Columbus had shown the way to the New World. As 
early as 1497 John Cabot, an Italian in the 
service of King Henry VII of England, ex- 
plored the coast of North America. The next 
year he made a second voyage. Apparently 
he discovered the St. Lawrence River, visited 
Newfoundland, and sailed southward along 
our present coast as far as Chesapeake Bay, 
possibly as far as South Carolina. In those 
days every king felt privileged to annex to 
his kingdom any new lands discovered by 

his sailors. On the strength of Cabot's discoveries England 

laid claim to practically all the territory now included in 

the United States, but for 

nearly a hundred years she 

did not attempt to take 

possession of it. 

17. Queen Elizabeth and 

her Seamen. Spain had for- 
bidden all other nations to 

trade with her American 

ports. Nevertheless daring 

Englishmen who were half 

traders, half pirates, defied 

the Spanish laws, fought 

their way into those ports, 

and sold their cargoes to 

whosoever would buy. The 

great Queen Elizabeth en- 
couraged these adventurers 

because she wished to build 

up a strong naval power in opposition to the power of Spain. 
Perhaps the greatest of Elizabeth's seamen was Sir Francis 

Drake, whose most brilliant achievement was his voyage 




DRAKE IN CALIFORNIA 



24 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



around the world. Hitherto the Spaniards had thought that 
no Englishman would dare to enter the Pacific. Drake 
coasted South America and sailed up the east shore of the 
Pacific, plundering Spanish ships wherever he met them. In 
his report of what he took we read of ''four score pound 
weight of gold, and six and twenty tunne of silver." He 
anchored and repaired his ship somewhere on the coast 
of California, possibly in the harbor of San Francisco. 
He named the country New Albion 
because Albion is an old name for 
England, and Drake hoped to see 
EngHshmen form a colony on the 
Pacific. He explored the coast as far 
north as Oregon. Thence he sailed 
westward and came home round the 
Cape of Good Hope. 

18. Raleigh's Settlement at Roanoke. 
The first English settlement inside the 
present limits of the United States was due to Sir Walter 
Raleigh. Queen Elizabeth gave him leave to take possession 
of a large part of the eastern coast of our country and named 
the whole region Virginia, after herself, the '' Virgin Queen." 
Raleigh wanted to associate his own name with the new 
country by founding, as he said, a "Citie of Raleigh." He 
made two unsuccessful attempts to start a colony. In a third 
attempt he sent over a hundred and fifty colonists, who 
formed a settlement on Roanoke Island, which is now a part 
of North Carolina. They came to Roanoke at the opening 
of the summer (1587), and in August their leader, John 
White, sailed for England to get further assistance. He left 
behind at Roanoke his daughter, her husband, who was 
named Ananias Dare, and a girl baby who had been born 
since the arrival of the colonists at Roanoke. This was the 
first child of English-speaking parents born on the soil of our 
country. She was christened Virginia. 





QUEEN ELIZABETH KNIGHTING SIR WALTER RALEIGH 
From a pen-etching by Sears Gallagher 



THE STRUGGLE OVER THE NEW WORLD 



25 



When White returned from England the settlement was a 
ruin and all the people were gone. He sought in vain for 
them among the surrounding forests. To this day no certain 
trace of them has ever been found. Were they killed by the 
Indians ? Did the Spaniards find them and massacre them ? 




THE SPANISH ARMADA 



We do not know. White went home with a heavy heart, and 
it was a long time before another English colony was planted 
in Virginia. 

19. The Invincible Armada. Englishmen continued to trade 
with the American ports in defiance of the Spanish king, 
battles continued to be fought between English ships and 
Spanish ships, and everyone knew that a great war was 
coming. The Spaniards had taken their time making 
ready to attack England. At last they were fully prepared. 
They had assembled the greatest battle fleet which had 
ever sailed the sea. They were so proud of it that 
they called it the Invincible Armada. In the summer 



2 6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of 1588 this fleet drew near the coast of England. It was 
sailing in the form of a half moon, seven miles from tip 
to tip. But the English were ready to meet it. They too 
had gathered a great fleet, in which were many famed sea 
rovers, — Drake, Raleigh, and many more, — all commanded 
by the Lord High Admiral of England, Lord Howard. The 
English admiral boldly allowed the Spaniards to pass him on 
their way up the English Channel toward London. He then 
attacked from the rear. During several days there was 
sharp fighting as the two fleets sailed eastward. Though 
the English ships were smaller than the Spanish they were 
better handled and had heavier guns, and the English sea- 
men, indifferent to their own deaths, fought with splendid 
enthusiasm. In the Strait of Dover the Spaniards turned 
at bay and in the great battle that followed were terribly 
defeated. Only a remnant of the Invincible Armada retreated 
northward, made its way round Scotland, and fled home 
to Spain. 

SUMMARY 

The Spanish possessions in America were enlarged by successive 
discoveries and conquests until they extended from Florida to 
Peru. By seizing the great wealth of Mexico and Peru the Span- 
ish king became the richest sovereign in Europe. Intending to 
keep all America for themselves the Spaniards promptly broke up 
an attempt of Frenchmen to plant an American colony. Mean- 
while England had laid claim to upper North America on the 
strength of the discoveries of John Cabot. The English were be- 
coming the rivals of Spain commercially and were determined to 
share in the benefits of the New World. Queen Elizabeth began 
the settlement of English America by authorizing Raleigh to 
colonize Virginia. The beginning of the United States was Ra- 
leigh's settlement on Roanoke Island. Elizabeth's sea rovers plun- 
dered Spanish commerce while preparing for the inevitable war. 
At last Spain sent against England the Invincible Armada, which 
the English destroyed in one of the greatest of naval combats. 



THE STRUGGLE OVER THE NEW WORLD 27 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher: I^x^ckovt, United States, I, chaps, ii-v ; Bassett, 
Utiited States,2iS-'\A'i Bourne,6^«/« in America, c\\z.y)S.\-xv\ Channing, 
History of the United States ; Corbett, Sir Francis Drake ; Creighton, 
Sir Walter Raleigh; Cross, History of England; Fiske, The Discovery of 
Anie?ica; *]:{AKhV\T, Principal Nai'igations ; Parkman, Tlie Pioneers 
of France in the A'ezu World; *Prescott, The Conquest of Peru ^nA The 
Conquest of Mexico; * Richman, The Spanish Conquerors {(Osxxovixd^^ oi 
America); *WooD, Elizabethan Sea Dogs (Chronicles of America). 

For the Pupil: Andrews, Ten Boys who lived on the Road from 
Long Ago to A^oiu ; Atkinson, An Introduction to American History, 
chaps, xvii-xxi; GoRDV, Anierica/t Explorers ; McMurry, Pioneers on 
Land and Sea ; Ober,. The Storied West Indies, and Cortes, Pizarro, 
De Soto, De Leon, Cabot, Raleigh, in the Series of Heroes of American 
History ; Pratt, Exploration and Discovery. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. How did Spain become rich? [2. Tell the story of Cortes, 
Ponce de Leon, or De Soto. (See Fiske, The Discovery of America 
(chap, viii), Bourne, Spai?i in America (108-111, 133-136, 162-168, 
169-174, 179-189), or Richman, The Spanish Conquerors; Gordy, 
American Explorers (chapters on Cortes, De Leon, De Soto), or W. H. 
Johnson, Pioneer Spaniards in America.)] 3. Who discovered Florida? 
4. How was the Mississippi discovered ? 

5. Who first visited Kansas ? 6. Where did Frenchmen attempt to 
form a colony? 7. What became of their settlement? 8. How did 
England acquire a claim to upper North America ? [9. Tell the story 
of John Cabot. (See Wood, Elizabethan Sea Dogs; Ober, Cabot.)] 
[10. As Elizabeth may be considered the first ruler of our country, 
narrate some incident of her reign. (See Cross, History of England 
(369-425), Andrews, Ten Boys (i 71-192), or Scott, Kenilworth.)] 

II. How did the Englishmen defy the Spaniards? 12. What did 
Raleigh attempt to do ? 13. What happened to the Invincible Armada ? 
[14. Give a brief account of one of Queen Elizabeth's seamen. (See 
Wood, Elizabethan Sea Dogs, Gordy (chapters on Drake and Raleigh), 
and Louise Creighton, Stories from English History (chapter on "The 
Fight of the Revenge"); also Tennyson's poem "The Revenge.")] 




COLONISTS TRADING FIREARMS FOR FURS 

SECOND DIVISION. HOW THE ENGLISH 
FOUNDED A NATION 

CHAPTER HI 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

PART ONE : THE LANDS OF THE VIRGINIA COMPANY 

20. The North American Indians. Almost everywhere in 
America the Europeans, soon or late, had to fight with the 
native inhabitants to possess the land. In Mexico and in 
South America, where the natives were numerous and semi- 
civilized, the Spaniards were involved almost at once in 
desperate wars (section 13). They triumphed only because 
they had superior weapons and understood the use of gun- 
powder. In northern America the English had somewhat 
the same experience. But the Indians of the North differed 
from those of the South in two respects : they were few in 
number and they had not learned how to build cities as had 
their kinsmen in Mexico. They spent most of their time rov- 
ing in bands through the great forests of the North, hunting, 

28 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 29 

fishing, or fighting with rival bands. They were tall, well- 
built men with copper-colored skins, straight black hair, 
and flashing black eyes. They were generous and faithful 
to their friends, though merciless to their enemies. After 
centuries of roving life they had become the most skillful 
forest fighters of whom we know. But when the Europeans 
came all the weapons of >^ 

the Northern Indians were {Jjl^^^fe^^ r..r-^ 

of the rudest sort. Their l-mi ) 



kinsmen of the South had ^^^^^ 

learned how to work metal ^^ ^^^^^^ ^™^^ ^^^"^'^^ 

and had weapons made of copper. The Indians of the North 
did not understand the use of metal. Stone, chipped so as 
to give it a sharp edge, formed the heads of their battle-axes, 
or tomahawks, and of the long, swift arrows which they shot 
from powerful bows. 

21. How the Whites Armed the Indians. The Indians were 
destined to play a great part, and often a horrible one, in the 
life of the settlers for more than two hundred years. We shall 
hear of them again and again attacking the newcomers with 
terrific fury. But the whites had only themselves to thank 
when in these wars the Indians frequently destroyed their 
towns and massacred their families. They ill-treated the 
Indians and at the same time taught them the use of 
firearms. Their purpose was to get in exchange for these 
superior weapons the valuable furs of which the Indians 
always had a supply and which brought high prices in 
Europe. At first, in trading with the whites, the Indian 
would accept for his furs mere trifles that happened to 
catch his eye, — beads, or bright-red handkerchiefs, or 
looking-glasses, — but the traders were shrewd enough to see 
that if they wanted to keep his trade they must give him 
things that he would permanently value. What else did 
they have that would prove as useful to the Indian as their 
fine European weapons — knives, guns, and powder? Of 



30 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

course he did not know how to use them. Therefore the 
traders taught him. When you set to work to teach people 
to want something you have in order to persuade them to 
give you something of theirs in exchange we say you are 
"creating a market" for the thing you offer. The early 
traders, seeking to make profit out of the Indians, created a 
market for firearms in America by teaching the Indians how 
to use them. As a result, in time, many traders grew rich. 
For one gun, when they had learned how to use it, the 
Indians would exchange furs that sold in Europe for many 
times what the gun cost. 

22. How the Indians Helped the Whites. However, the 
Indians and the whites were not always at war. Sometimes 
the Indians welcomed the whites. They had a few inventions 
of their own which the colonists found extremely useful — 
especially the light birch-bark canoe. This form of boat, 
which weighs so little that a man can carry it on his 
shoulders, is nevertheless so strong that a driving storm will 
not damage it. By means of the canoe the early colonists 
were able to make their way inland to the heads of the rivers 
where no other boats could go. 

The Indians also provided the colonists with a system of 
roads. These, to be sure, were only paths or trails through 
the forests, made by Indian bands passing in single file, 
but long experience had taught the Indians just where, in 
certain regions, it was best to lay out such a trail. Probably 
some of these trails were very ancient. We cannot guess how 
many generations of Indian warriors had trodden smooth 
those well-marked footpaths through the primeval woods, 
but so well chosen was the course of many a trail that it has 
never ceased to be in use. A very noted trail was the one 
through the Mohawk X'aliey, which was the main path of 
the Northern Indians in long journeys back and forth east- 
ward or westward. When in time settlers made their way 
through the INlohawk Valley, they widened the trail into a 



32 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



road. Long afterwards, when a railway was needed to link 
the Hudson with the West, the engineers decided that the 
best course they could follow was the line of the ancient 
Indian trail. It is traveled to this day by the trains of the 
New York Central Railroad. In many parts of our country, 




ONE TYPE OF INDIAN HOME — THE LONG HOUSE OF THE IROQUOIS 

whether traveling in wagon or automobile or railway car, 
we follow, time and again, the footsteps of Indian warriors 
of centuries ago. 

Although the Indians loved to rove through the forests 
they had villages in which part of their time was passed, and 
they had made a beginning in agriculture. Their wigwams, 
or huts, were surrounded in many cases by fields of tobacco 
and maize, called also Indian corn. The cultivation of corn 
was perhaps the most important thing learned from the 
natives by the foreigners. Had not the colonists acquired 
this knowledge, many of them would have died of starvation. 
Friendly Indians not only showed them how to care for the 
corn but how to kill the forest trees by *' girdling" — that is, 
by cutting off a ring of bark round the trunk — without 
taking time to cut them down. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



33 



^l:ofe'"".'f 



Virginia 

23. Causes of English Colonization. The English move- 
ment into America was due not only to the bold spirit of 
the English people but also to certain changes that had 
recently taken place in their way of living. For one thing, 
there was a new demand 
for wool, and the tend- 
ing of sheep required 
fewer laborers than did 
agriculture. Powerful 
landowners drove their 
tenants off their farms 
and turned the fields 
into pastures. When 
Queen Elizabeth died 
and James I became 
king, many English 
laborers were homeless 
and unemployed and 
eager for a change. 
Furthermore, many Englishmen thought the rule of the new 
king harsh and stubborn. Others differed from the king in 
their religious beliefs and, because he wished to interfere 
with their religion, were ready to go to the ends of the earth 
if there they might worship God in their own way. Still 
others were envious of the Spaniards and dreamed of imitat- 
ing their success in discovering gold mines. 

24. The Virginia Company. In i6o6 a group of capitalists 
obtained from King James the privilege of establishing a 
colony in Virginia. The tract of land which the king gave 
them was a hundred miles square. Later he increased the 
grant so as to include all the coast two hundred miles north 
and two hundred miles south of Point Comfort and all the 
land westward and northwestward to the Pacific. The 




ENGLISH EXPLORATION 



34 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Virginia Company,' as the capitalists were called, was em- 
powered both to develop this land and to govern its inhab- 
itants. The Company had three purposes: (i) to secure 
for itself all the profit that could be made out of the 
land; (2) to control trade, both with the colonists and with 
the Indians; (3) to seek for gold mines and to work them. 




THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN 

25. First Settlement in Virginia. In the spring of 1607 
three little ships, the Susan Constant, the Goodspeed, and the 
Discovery, anchored in the James River and put ashore over 
a hundred colonists, all men. On the low, marshy land, some 
thirty miles from the mouth of the river, these men set about 
building Jamestown (May 24, 1607'). 

1 It was also called the London Company. The king's charter created two 
companies, with headquarters at London and Plymouth. The former was to 
colonize the South, the latter the North. .\n attempt made by the Plymouth 
Company, at the mouth of the Kennebec (1607), was not successful. The 
colonists returned home at the end of their first winter. 

-This is the date according to the "New Style" calendar, which we use 
today. At the time what is known as the "Old Style" calendar was in 
use, and the date was written May 13. Because of a mistake in the old 
calendar we have added eleven days to the date as it was originally written. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



35 



The experience of the early Virginians forms a sad chap- 
ter in American history. It had been agreed that for several 
years none of them were to receive any land of their own, but 
all were to work as servants of the Company. Some were 
sent into the wilderness to seek gold mines ; others were put 
to work in the new fields. The gold seekers came home 
empty handed, after many 
sufferings, to join the men 
in the fields. All were 
treated harshly. At first 
soldiers of the Company 
kept guard over them while 
they worked, as if they 
were military prisoners. 
The climate was so unlike 
that of England, the work 
was so hard, and there was 
so little food in the settle- 
ment that many fell sick 
and died. 

26. John Smith; Pocahon- 
tas. Only the genius of several strong men saved the colony 
from destruction. One of these was Captain John Smith. 
He afterwards wrote an account of his life in Virginia in 
which is narrated the famous incident of the Indian girl 
Pocahontas. Smith tells us that while exploring the for- 
ests he was seized by unfriendly Indians and taken as a 
prisoner to the wigwam of their chief, Powhatan, by whom 
he was condemned to death. He was thrown upon the 
ground, and an Indian warrior raised a club to beat out his 
brains. At this instant Powhatan's little daughter Poca- 
hontas threw her arms around Smith's neck and refused to 
stir unless her father promised to spare his life. Powhatan 
yielded to the girl's entreaties. In his book Smith makes 
it appear that this event was of immense importance to the 




POCAHONTAS DRESSED AS AN 
. ENGLISH NOBLEWOMAN 



36 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

colony, which was then almost at the point of starvation. 
Powhatan permitted his daughter and others to carry food to 
Jamestown. Later Pocahontas gave Smith information of an 
Indian plot to kill him. Long afterwards this gentle Indian 
girl married an Englishman, John Rolfe, and went with him 
to England, where she was treated with honor and called 
the Princess Pocahontas. There she died, leaving a son 
from whom several distinguished Americans have descended.^ 

27. Smith leaves the Colony. Smith was a bold, jolly man, 
a great story-teller, afraid of nothing, who bore the crudest 
hardship with a smile. With such a leader, even the most 
unhappy people will be able to bear up. But after a while 
Smith was injured by an explosion of gunpowder ( 1609) and 
had to go back to England for treatment. The colonists, left 
to themselves without his heroic courage and wonderful good 
humor, very nearly gave up in despair. The winter following 
Smith's return is called ''the starving time." Out of five 
hundred colonists all but sixty died. The remainder were 
rescued by the arrival of fresh supplies from England. 

28. The Virginia Company ceases to be purely Commercial. 
It is not strange that the rich men who cared only to make 
money out of Virginia grew tired of their experiment. They 
offered to sell their shares in the Company for a low price 
to anybody who would take Virginia off their hands. One 
of the fortunate things in our history is the fact that there 
were men in England of a very different sort who had both 
the money and the desire to buy up the stock of the capital- 
ists in the Virginia Company. A bargain was made, and 
these others took control of the Company and of the colony. 
The most noted were Henry, Earl of Southampton, famous 
as a friend of Shakespeare ; and a great political leader, 
Sir Edwin Sandys (pronounced ''sands"). Their motives 

'In 1Q15 a descendant of Pocahontas married the president of the United 
States. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 37 

were widely different from those of the men they had bought 
out. They had other ends in view besides money. They 
wanted to do two things : to plant a new English nation in 
Virginia and to give to its citizens more freedom than was yet 
possible in England. 

29. Virginia becomes a Free Country. The military des- 
potism of the former rulers of Virginia was brought to an 
end ; so was that bad plan of keeping all the land in the 
hands of the Company.' Land was offered for sale — virtu- 
ally given away — as an inducement to people of character 
and energy to become settlers. Many Englishmen of good 
family, now that Virginia was to be a free and hospitable 
country, consented to cross the sea and become landowners 
there. With a rapidity that could hardly have been imag- 
ined the colony became populous and wealthy. 

30. Tobacco-Growing ; a Virginia Plantation. The main 
foundation of Virginia's prosperity was tobacco. The Eng- 
lish had learned the use of tobacco from the Indians as far 
back as the time of Raleigh, when ^^fire-breathing" men who 
smoked the ^^new weed" were regarded as wonders. The 
perfecting of tobacco culture is due to John Rolfe, the hus- 
band of Pocahontas. Very often the occupations of people 
compel them to live in a certain way. Such was the case 
in Virginia. Profitable tobacco-growing requires fresh soil, 
and consequently a tobacco-grower must have a great deal 
of land so that he can frequently abandon old fields and 
develop new ones. For this reason Virginia became a 
country of large estates called plantations. It did not 
become a country of towns. The planters had little need 
of towns except as market places for their tobacco, and 
for that purpose how could a little new town serve them as 

1 A move in this direction was made earlier by Sir Thomas Dale, governor 
of the colony from 1611 to 1616. He allowed each colonist a plot of land and 
a part of his time for cultivating it. 



38 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

well as would the rich old city of London? Direct trade 
between each plantation and London was made possible 
by the deep Virginia rivers. Often when a man bought land 
and laid out a plantation he located it on one of these rivers. 
There he built a wharf to which a ship could come laden 
with English merchandise and from which it could sail home 
to London with his tobacco. Back from the wharf the 




I Harper & Brothers 

BERKELEY, NEAR HARRISON'S LANDING, A TYPICAL TOBACCO PLANTATION 
From "Old Times in the Colonies" 

planter built his home. Around it — sometimes stretching 
far inland — were the fields whence he drew his wealth. 
Before long there were many men in Virginia owning 
plantations of great size. 

31. Indentured Servants ; Slaves. As the plantations grew 
larger the need for laborers increased. Thereupon ''inden- 
tured servants" were sent over from England. These were 
unfortunate men and women — even children — who in one 
way or another were forced to leave England and become 
servants in the colony. Some of these unfortunates had sold 
their services to pay their debts. Some were respectable 
people whom unscrupulous sea captains with bands of 
sailors had waylaid, carried on board ship, and brought over 
against their will. Some had agreed to work for a term of 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 39 

years because they lacked money to pay their passage across 
the ocean. In any case they were rented out, so to speak, 
to some colonial employer who could use them almost like 
so many slaves. The agreement under which these distressed 
servants were rented out was called an indenture. 

But even with these servants there were not enough la- 
borers to cultivate properly the great tobacco fields, and so 
slavery was introduced. In 1619 a ship came to Jamestown 
with a cargo of Africans/ who became laborers in the 
tobacco fields. Subsequently many shiploads of African 
slaves were brought to America and sold to the colonists. In 
course of time slavery was established in all the thirteen 
colonies. 

32. The Establishment of Representative Government. 
While these social and business changes were taking place, 
another change was made in the condition of Virginia that 
was still more important. The new owners of the Company 
instructed the colonists to choose two men from each of the 
eleven divisions of the colony. These men were to meet at 
Jamestown to make laws. This change was made not for 
the profit of the owners of the Company but because the 
owners believed in ''representative" government, which gives 
the people through their representatives a voice in mak- 
ing laws. Thus was organized our first state legislature. 
Its first meeting was held in the church at Jamestown, 
August 10, 1 61 9. It was named the House of Burgesses. 

33. King James destroys the Virginia Company. The new 
owners of the Virginia Company, by their love of free gov- 
ernment, had aroused the anger of King James. He was 
the last man to appreciate their lofty motives. After quar- 
reling a long while with the men who were managing Vir- 
ginia he made a base use of his great power and abolished 

1 It was once thought that these earliest African emigrants were slaves. 
Probably they were indentured servants. Other Africans were later sold as 

slaves. 



40 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




the Company, taking back all the land he had once given it. 
However, the free government of Virginia was not destroyed. 
To be sure, the king sent over a royal governor appointed 
by himself and later kings did the same, but the House of 
Burgesses continued to meet and to make laws for the 
management of the colony's affairs. 

34. Significance of the Virginia Com- 
pany. We cannot be too grateful to 
the wise and noble men who laid the 
foundation for the American Republic 
by establishing representative govern- 
ment in Virginia, nor should we forget 
that only Englishmen would have done 
so. The Spanish colonies were ruled 
by governors who were absolute despots, holding power in the 
king's name, over whom the people had no control. The 
French colonies, of which we are to hear much, were also 
despotic governments, in which the business of the people 
was to obey. 

Maryland 

35. Two Kinds of Colony : the Royal Province and the 
Proprietary Colony. With the appointment of the first gov- 
ernor who represented the king, Virginia became a "royal 
province." We shall see in time that the kings sought in 
every way to increase the number of royal provinces ; that 
is, of colonies over which there were governors appointed by 
the king and acting as his representatives. At the same 
time, here and there the king allowed some wealthy Eng- 
lishman to take possession of some great tract of land in 
America and rule over it as if he were himself a sort of 
under-king. This under-king had all the powers of the great 
king in London and was usually required to pay as tribute 
one fifth of all the gold and silver mined in the colony each 
year. He was usually called a Lord Proprietor, 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



41 



36. The Grant of Maryland to Lord Baltimore. A piece of 
the royal province of Virginia was cut off and made into a 
proprietary province. It consisted, roughly speaking, of all 
Virginia lying north and east of the Potomac excepting a 
small part.^ It was given by the king — Charles I, son of 
James I — to a great noble, 
Cecilius Calvert, Lord Balti- 
more. It is known today as 
the state of Maryland. Lord 
Baltimore gave it that name 
in honor of the queen of Eng- 
land, Henrietta Maria. 

Lord Baltimore was a Ro- 
man Catholic. The laws of 
England at that time bore hard 
upon Catholics, and though 
rich nobles like Baltimore who 
were friends of the king might 
not be molested, poorer Catho- 
lics suffered many restrictions 
in the practice of their re- 
ligion. It occurred to Balti- 
more that if he opened his colony to all Christians, both 
Catholics and Protestants, many men who were dissatisfied 
with conditions in England would go to Maryland ; the colony 
would become a prosperous state, and the Lord Proprietor 
a great and wealthy prince. Upon this plan Maryland was 
founded. Of course many Catholics came over, glad to es- 
cape the harsh laws against them in England. But Protes- 
tants also came. For making laws the settlers were 
allowed to elect an assembly very much like the House of 




CKCILirS CALVERT, SECOND LORD 
BALTIMORE 



1 There were several uncertainties with regard to both the new boundary 
of Virginia and the new boundary laid down for Maryland. These were 
due to confused ideas about the geography of that region. They were the 
cause later of a dispute between Maryland and Pennsylvania (see section 7S). 



42 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Burgesses in Virginia. These laws were sent over to the 
Lord Proprietor and received his approval — or disapproval, 
as the case might be. There was also a governor appointed 
— not by the king, however, but by the Lord Proprietor. 

37. The First Governor of Maryland. The first governor of 
Maryland was Leonard Calvert, a brother of Lord Balti- 
more. He brought with him to Maryland both Catholics 
and Protestants. Among the Catholics were two priests. 
Calvert landed on the shore of the Potomac, where he set up a 
cross, an Indian wigwam was converted into a church, mass 
was celebrated, and the governor took possession of the 
country. There he built the town of St. Mary's, which was 
long the capital of Maryland. 

Leonard Calvert made friends with the Indians and pur- 
chased one of their villages, which he used as a temporary 
shelter for the first settlers. He also employed the Indians 
to teach the whites how to use the Indian corn and to 
make bread of it. The friendship of whites and Indians was 
so well established that Maryland never suffered from an 
Indian war. 

38. Margaret Brent. Though Governor Calvert was an able 
man he could not always find the money necessary to carry 
on his government. When he died, in office, his soldiers com- 
plained that they had not been properly paid for their serv- 
ices. And now comes before us a noble figure, a kinswoman 
of the dead governor, who acted as his executrix, Mistress 
Margaret Brent. She was a great landholder, managed her 
estates herself, and also had the faculty of influencing people 
and inspiring them with confidence in the justice of what 
she did. She succeeded in completely satisfying the dis- 
contented soldiers, and the Assembly sent word to Lord 
Baltimore that if Mistress Brent had not been there, 
serious trouble would have occurred, as the angry soldiers 
would listen to no one else. This bold lady was probably the 
first woman in America who demanded the right to vote. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 43 

As executrix of the late governor she claimed a seat in the 
Colonial Assembly. It was refused her. Thereupon, say 
the records of the Assembly, '■'■ the said Mrs. Brent protested 
against all the proceedings of this Assembly unless she may 
be present and have a vote as aforesaid." 

39. The Act of Toleration. The disagreements over reli- 
gion which had led to the founding of Maryland grew worse 

A LAW 

MAR y'l AND 

Concerning 

RELIGION. 

aOnfituch u ia iwellgoverned and Chnftian Common wealth, Matters concerning Religion and iJic Honogr of God ougTii to be in the firft 
" pU e tnberaVenintoTeriousconfidcratioo, and endeavoured to be Tetdcd. Be it therefore Ordained and Eotfted by the Right Honourable 
* C\>EC fLlUS Lord Bjronof 5*/«w;/^abfolu(eLord andPiopnetary of this Province, with ihej^dviceind Confent of the Upper and 
^ Lower Houlc ofthu General Affcmblj', That whatroevcr pcrfon or pcrfons within this Province and the Iflandi thereunto belortgme, fhall 
' froahencefonhblafphcmcGOD, thatiicurfehim; or Diali deny our Saviour jesUS CHRliT ighethoSonofGod) orflialldenp 
ihc Holy Trinity, the Faiher.Son.&HdyGhoni or ihe Godhead of any of the riidThreePcrrons of the Tnnit>sor the Unity of theCodhead^ 
orfball ufeor utter any reproachful rpCEches, words, or iancuagc, concerning the Hwly Trinity, or any of the faid three Perfooi thereof, Qiall be pu- 
oiOicd with death, and confifcaiion or forfeiture ofall his orber Lands and Goods to the Lord Proprietary and bis Heirs. 

And be it alfo cnaQcd by ihe Authority, and with the advice and affenc aforcfaid.TIiai whatloever perfon orperfoniniaU from fienceforth ufc or utter 
any reproachful words or fpccdhcs concerning ihc blcffcd Virgin MART, the Mother of our Saviour, or ihe holy Apoflles at Evangelifts, or any of thcm^ 
fhall in fuch cafeforthc firft Olfcnec forfeit toihe faid Urd Proprietary and hit Hein, Lordsand proprietariesof this ProvioCe, tlie Turn of five pounds 
Sterling.or the value ihercofto be levied onihe goods and thattelsofcvery fuch pcrfon fooffendiog; but in cafe fuch offtnder or ofenders (hall not tlien- 
havc goods and chattels rufficicQtior the fmsfying of fuch (orfe:tarc, or that the fame be not oiherwiferpecdilyGtisBcd, that then fuch offender or oHhid- 
ersOuUbepiiblicklywhipc, and be impnfoncd during the pkafurcof the Lord Proprictary.orthe Lieutenant or Chief Governor of this Province for the 
time being : And ihat every fucli oftnder andoffendcrs for every fccond offence fhall forfeit Ten Pounds Sterling, or the value thereof to be levied as ifore- 
fiid -, or in cafe fuch offender or offenders (hall not then have goods and chattels within this Province Tufficieot for that puipofe, then ta be publicftly an<l* 
fevercly whipt and impnfuncdas before is cipredcd ■ and that every perfon or perfons before mcntioaed, oScnding beniatbethird time, (hall for fuch* 
iturd offence, forfeit all his lands and goods, and be forever banifhi and expelled out of this Province. 

THE FIRST WORDS OF THE MARYLAND ACT OF 1619 

and worse. In Virginia, where most people belonged to the 
Church of England, a law was passed (1643) forbidding 
clergymen of other denominations to hold public services. 
When Lord Baltimore heard of this he invited those Vir- 
ginians who were opposed to the Established Church to 
come to Maryland. Many of these Puritans, as they were 
called (see section 50), accepted his invitation. 

In order to protect all the colonists in their various beliefs. 
Lord Baltimore had the Assembly pass an act which he 
formally approved, the now famous Act of Toleration 
( 1649). It gave to all persons who believed in the divinity 
of Christ the legal right to live in Maryland and practice 
their religion. In only one other colony, Rhode Island (see 
section 59), was similar freedom allowed. 



44 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



The Colonies and English Politics 

40. The War between King and Parliament. In England 
about this time King Charles I attempted to tax people with- 
out the consent of their elected legislature, the Parliament. 
This caused the great English Civil War. The same year 

in which the 
Toleration Act 
waspassed, Par- 
liament, having 
completely de- 
feated the king, 
put him todeath 
(1649). It then 
sent over com- 
missioners to 
compel Virginia 
and Maryland 
to acknowledge 
its authority. 
One of these was 
abold Virginian, 
William Clai- 
borne, who had long been an enemy of the Calverts — 
partly because of a personal quarrel, partly because of his 
indignation when Maryland was carved out of Virginia. 
Most of the Maryland Protestants rallied around Claiborne. 
Some Protestants and many Catholics supported Governor 
Stone, who, though a Protestant, had been appointed by 
Lord Baltimore. It is best to think of the two parties as 
the Parliamentary party and the king's party. In the 
Battle of the Severn (1655) the Parliamentary party were 
victorious. 

41. Cromwell and America. IMeanwhile, one of the great- 
est of Englishmen, the Puritan leader, Oliver Cromwell, had 




THE MARYLAND COLONY 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 45 

become master of the situation. He had won fame in the 
Parliamentary army as commander of a cavalry regiment 
called, because of their inflexible courage, the Ironsides. In 
many famous battles the scale had been turned by a charge 
of the Ironsides — Cromwell at their head, their bright swords 
flashing in the sunlight, while the voices of the men sing- 
ing a psalm rang clear above the thunder of their horse- 
hoofs. The commander of the Ironsides was now proclaimed 
Lord Protector of England. Virtually, Cromwell became 
king, though he was not so called. 

Cromwell believed in toleration. He was troubled by the 
violent course of his party in Maryland, where they had 
declared the rule of Baltimore at an end and had deprived 
Catholics of the right to vote. Cromwell knew he could 
trust Baltimore, who, though he at first inclined toward the 
king, had virtually joined the Parliamentary party. Through 
Cromwell's influence the rule of Baltimore was restored 
in Maryland, the Act of Toleration was again put in force, 
and again there was full religious liberty for all Christians. 

42. Virginia becomes the "Cavalier Colony." The great 
majority of the Virginians had sided with the king. This 
was due largely to their attachment to the Church of 
England, which they feared the Parliament would destroy. 
When Parliament overthrew the king it seemed likely that 
Virginia would be harshly dealt with. The wisdom and gen- 
erosity of Cromwell saved Virginia Royalists from perse- 
cution. Furthermore, he made no objection when many 
gallant gentlemen who had spent their fortunes in support 
of the king proposed to emigrate to Virginia. So numerous 
were these '^ cavaliers" who crossed the sea that Virginia 
came to be known as the Cavalier Colony. Among the 
cavalier emigrants was John Washington, a cousin of Sir 
Henry Washington, one of the king's generals. A great 
grandson of John Washington became the first president 
of the United States. 



46 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




-*n...a^'^H 




'^ii/Kiuii'/ftil^;' 



HOMES OF THE WASHINGTON FAMILY 

Upper left, Sulgrave Manor, in England ; upper right, pioneer home of the 
Washingtons, in Virginia; below, Mount Vernon 



SUMMARY 



The North American Indians both obstructed and aided col- 
onization. These Indians were able warriors with whom the new- 
comers fought bitter wars. In their eagerness for trade the colonists 
taught the Indians how to use the European weapons and thus 
increased their own danger. On the other hand, they learned from 
the Indians various things very useful in their new surroundings ; 
most important of these was the cultivation of corn. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 47 

Permanent English settlement began at Jamestown under the 
direction of a powerful trading company which expected to make 
money in Virginia. At first the colonists suffered great hard- 
ships. The company found Virginia unprofitable and sold the 
control of it to a group of politicians who wished to establish 
representative government in America. The earliest event in the 
history of American liberty is the first meeting of the Virginia 
legislature, the House of Burgesses, King James I abolished the 
Virginia Company and made the colony a royal province, but he 
did not destroy its free institutions. 

King Charles I cut off a portion of Virginia and granted it 
to Lord Baltimore as a proprietary colony, to which Baltimore 
gave the name "Maryland." In order to assist persecuted 
Catholics Baltimore opened his colony to settlers of all Christian 
denominations. 

Meanwhile in England the king and the Parliament had begun 
their great Civil War. Both parties had friends in the colonies. 
In Maryland there was a little civil war in which the Parliamen- 
tary party overthrew the government of Baltimore and began per- 
secuting their enemies. They were checked by the rise to power 
in England of Oliver Cromwell, who succeeded in making peace 
in Maryland and restoring the tolerant rule of Baltimore. 

Cromwell permitted followers of the king to emigrate to the 
colonies. As Virginia had always favored the royal cause, numbers 
of king's men, or "Cavaliers," settled in the "Cavalier Colony." 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher: Andrews, Colonial Self-Govermnent ; Bassett, 
Uftited States, 11 -21, 42-58; Becker, Beginnings of the American 
People, S4-8o; *Brown, First Republic in Atnerica; Browne, History 
of Maryland; *Channing, Utiited States, \,c\v2i^%.\\\-\y.\ Ckoss, History 
of England; Fiske, Old Virginia and her Neighbors ; Hart, American 
History told by Contemporaries, I, chaps, x, xi ; Huntington, The Red 
Man's Continent; Johnson, "^Ixkx, Pioneers of the Old South; Merenes, 
Maryland; Tyler, England in America, chaps, iii-vii. 

For the Pupil : Ashton (Ed.), Adventures and Discourses of Captain 
John Smith ; Chandler, Makers of Virginia History ; Cooke, Stories 
of the Old Dofninion ; Drake, The A faking of Virginia and The Middle 



48 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Colonies, 1-89; Gambrill, Leading Events of Maryland History; 
GORDY, Colonial Days and Stories of Early American History ; Higgin- 
SON, Book of American Explorers, chap, xi ; Macuonald, St. George 
and St. Michael (a charming romance of Puritans and Cavaliers^; 
Magruder, Maryland : Stories of Iter People and of her History. 



PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. What three reasons had Englishmen for emigrating? 2. In 
what way did the Indians obstruct colonization ? [3. Describe the life 
of the North American Indians. (See Bassett, 11-21; Huntington, 
2'Ae Red Ma7i's Continent (Chronicles of America); Judd, Wigwam 
Stories ; Snedden, Docas. the Indian Boy of Santa Clara ; Starr, Amer- 
ican Indians.)] [4. Explain the term "creating a market." Can you 
imagine any way in which you might have an. opportunity to create a 
market ? (If this problem is used the teacher should bring it within 
the scope of the pupil's comprehension of advertising. It is worth 
remembering that Tom Sawyer created a market by persuading the 
other boys that they wanted to paint the fence.)] 

5. How did the Indians aid the whites ? (Three answers) 6. De- 
scribe the Hfe of an early settler in Virginia. How do you think such 
a life would affect people ? Would it make them bold and resolute ? 
Would it teach them to rely upon themselves ? (The teacher will 
observe that here is the beginning of that "influence of the frontier" 
that has helped to make Americans independent and resourceful. 
See Turner, The Froittier in America?i History, or Becker, The United 
States, chap, vi.) 7. How did it happen that the early Virginians 
built few towns? 

8. How did Virginia become a royal province ? 9. Why was part 
of Virginia made into a separate colony? 10. How did this new colony 
differ from a royal province? 11. Three ways of governing a colony 
have now been described. How would your state be governed if it 
resembled exactly (a) Virginia under the Company, or (b) Virginia 
after it became a royal province, or (c) the proprietary province of 
Maryland (sections 24, 32, S3, ^5, 36)? 

12. How did Maryland differ from England in the laws that affected 
religion (sections 36, 39)? 13. How did Maryland differ from Virginia 
(sections 36, 39)? 14. What do you know about Mrs. Margaret Brent? 
15. What great political parties had formed in England? 16. How did 
Virginia become the Cavalier Colony? 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 49 

PART TWO: THE COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 

43. The Northern Group of English Colonies. While the 
English were making settlements on the James and Potomac 
Rivers and on Chesapeake Bay other settlements were made 
far away in the north. Even then what is now known as 
New England had received its name. In the latter part of 
his life Captain John Smith made a voyage along the north- 
erly coast and drew up a map on which, for the first time, 
appeared the name ^'New England." 

The settlement of this northern country, with its rock- 
bound coast, its dark forests, its long, snowy winters, was 
a result of the contentions going on in England. The move- 
ment began long before the outbreak of the English Civil 
War (section 40). In the days of James I, and later when 
Charles I was king. New England became a refuge for many 
of their opponents. 

Plymouth 

44. The Pilgrim Migration. To understand the very begin- 
ning of the first migration to New England we must imagine 
ourselves in the little town of Scrooby in old England, 
where, when James I was king, lived a number of pious 
people known as Separatists. They were men and women 
who wished to separate from the Church of England and to 
form a new church of their own. When the government for- 
bade them to hold public services, William Brewster, a man 
of importance in Scrooby, made his house their meeting 
place. The government tried to break up these meetings by 
throwing the Separatists into prison ; therefore they resolved 
to leave the country. In small parties they made their way 
to Holland, where everyone was free to practice what religion 
he chose. They reassembled in the lovely old town of Ley- 
den. There they lived for several years. But they were not 
happy, because they were patriotic Englishmen and did not 



50 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

want their children to become Dutchmen. Feeling that they 
had no real home, they called themselves Pilgrims. 

When the Pilgrims heard that Englishmen were settling in 
America it occurred to them that over there, so far from 
London, the king would probably leave them alone ; that 
in America they might practice their religion in peace and 
yet bring up their children as Englishmen. Therefore they 
returned to England and paid the captain of a ship, the 
Mayflower, to take them across the sea. There were one 
hundred and two of these brave Pilgrims, including twelve 
children. On December 21, 1620, they landed where is 
now the town of Plymouth, Massachusetts. The landing 
was made by means of a rock which is known today as 
Plymouth Rock. 

45. The Kindly Temper of the Pilgrims. There has seldom 
been a gentler and kinder group of people than the Pilgrims. 
They appear to have had good will toward all men, even 
toward the cruel king from whom they had fled and toward 
the savages of the forests. They valued so highly the free- 
dom to worship God in their own way that they would not 
refuse the same freedom to others. Their little republic — 
for so we may describe their settlement — was a land of 
peace and good will. 

46. The Mayflower Compact ; Plymouth Town Meet- 
ings. Before they landed, the Pilgrims, in the cabin of the 
Mayflower, drew up and signed a paper known ever since as 
the Mayflower Compact. In it they bound themselves to set- 
tle all disputes by vote, to decide what was best for them all 
in the same way, and in every case to carry out what the 
majority voted to do. They agreed to elect a governor, and 
chose John Carver. 

After coming ashore and building their little town they 
perfected their government by organizing town meetings. 
In these meetings all the men of the colony, except a few 
who for one reason or another were not considered worthy 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 51 

to take part, assembled for the purpose of making laws and 
electing officers. Furthermore, all the citizens met whenever 
there was business to transact — whether it was to make a 
road into the forest, or to buy land from the Indians, or 
whatever it was — and decided the matter by vote. Some of 
the little cities of ancient Greece were governed very much 
as Plymouth was. The Plymouth town meetings remind us 
of the common assemblies of those ancient times. 

Similar meetings were held by the ancestors of the Pil- 
grims, in England, hundreds of years before, but had long 
gone out of use. The Pilgrims revived them. From Plym- 
outh they were adopted by all that group of New England^ 
colonies of which we are soon to hear. They have had 
a great deal to do with making all our part of America a 
free and democratic country. 

47. The Pilgrims and the Indians. Soon after the arrival 
of the Pilgrims an Indian walked into Plymouth and called 
out, '' Welcome, Englishmen!" His name was Samoset, 
and he had learned a few words from English sailors. He 
introduced to the Pilgrims his chief, Massasoit, who is one 
of the few kindly figures in Indian history. Massasoit made 
a treaty of friendship with the Pilgrims, and he and his 
followers taught them many things, giving the strangers 
the same useful knowledge which the kinsmen of Pocahontas 
had given the English in Virginia (section 22) — how to 
plant and cultivate Indian corn ; how to shoot fish with the 
bow and arrow ; how to dig clams and catch eels. This 
knowledge kept the Pilgrims from starvation. 

Massasoit told the Pilgrims that some Indians farther 
north were hostile to the English and would probably attack 
them. Thereupon Captain Miles Standish, the chief military 

^They were used, however, for local government only. For the larger 
task of governing the colony as a whole, representative assemblies were 
formed. Even Plymouth, as it grew larger, formed such an assembly. It 
was similar to the House of Burgesses (section 32). In Massachusetts the 
Assembly was called the General Court. 



52 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

man at Plymouth, gathered a small force and marched 
against the Indians. This famous soldier was so small in 
stature that the Indians laughed at him. None the less he 
brought home the head of their leader, and the Indians 
laughed no more. 

48. The Pilgrims' Festival : Thanksgiving Day. When the 
first autumn in America came, danger of starvation had gone 





SAMOSET WELCOMES THE ENGLISH 



by. The streams, the woods, the newly cleared fields, had 
yielded a rich harvest — fish, game, wild turkeys, and Indian 
corn. In their gratitude to God for their deliverance the 
Pilgrims appointed a day of thanksgiving, when they and 
their Indian allies sat down together to a great feast. They 
were reviving an ancient forgotten custom of their ancestors, 
who, thousands of years before, had an annual festival when 
they gave thanks for the harvest and dedicated to man's use 
the fruits of the earth. That ancient custom revived at 
Plymouth is continued every Thanksgiving Day in our 
autumnal festival which the whole country now celebrates 
year after year. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



53 



49. The End of Plymouth Colony. The Pilgrims had no 
charter from the king. They had bought their land from 
the Council of New England, an association of wealthy 
men to whom James had granted a vast area, but their lit- 
tle republic had never received any royal sanction ; in the 
eyes of the English courts it did not exist. During seventy 
years the tiny republic was not molested by royal power. 




THE FIRST THANKSGIVING 



Meanwhile there grew up alongside it the great colony of 
Massachusetts. Eventually, Plymouth was joined by royal 
decree to Massachusetts (see section no). 



Massachusetts 

50. The Puritans. The great number of the opponents 
of King James in England were known as Puritans, because 
most of them said at first that their aim was to ''purify" 
the Church of England, not to separate from it. They de- 
sired much simpler services than were customary in the 
Church, and they wished to change its form of government 
so as to give the king less power to interfere in its affairs. 



54 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Shortly after Charles I became king a group of influential 
Puritans secured a royal charter under which was organ- 
ized the great colonizing Company of Massachusetts Bay. 
Like the Virginia Company (section 24), they were to own 
a great tract of land and also to rule over its inhabitants. 




EARLY NEW ENGLAND 



\\Tien King Charles granted their charter he did not dream 
what a surprise was in store for him. He thought the owners 
of the jNIassachusetts Company w^ould remain in England, 
where he could keep them under his thumb as his father had 
kept the Virginia Company; but the new Company had. 
other views. The owners removed to Massachusetts, taking 
with them, as we should say, the offices of the Company. 
They had now decided to leave the Church of England, and 
their purpose was to found a Puritan community to which 
they would hand over all the privileges granted by the king 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 55 

to the Company. Later they decided that each settler 
who met certain requirements might be enrolled as a '^ free- 
man" and should be considered a citizen of the colony of 
Massachusetts with a voice in making laws. To become a 
freeman the settler had (i) to prove himself a prosperous 
man of good character; (2) to join a new church which the 
Puritans decided to establish, — the church we know today 
as the Congregational; (3) to take an oath that he was a 
loyal Englishman. 

Early settlers who founded the town of Salem (1625) were 
quickly joined b}^ others led by John Endicott. These were 
followed soon after by a much larger party, numbering no 
less than nine hundred, in eleven ships, under the lead of 
John Winthrop, who was elected governor of the colony. 
The Massachusetts colonists decided that the best place for 
the capital of their new state was on the shore of a noble 
harbor to the south of Salem. As many of them had come 
from Boston, in England, they gave that name to their new 
city (1630). 

5L The Puritan Commonwealth. The migration of the 
Puritans made a great stir in England. King Charles 
thought of taking back their charter, but decided that it 
was safer not to break his word so soon. However, a few 
years afterwards, when the bitterness between himself and 
the Puritans was increasing daily (section 40), it was re- 
ported at Boston that he intended to send over an army to 
deprive the American Puritans of their liberties. Thereupon 
these determined men prepared to fight. They built a fort 
overlooking Boston (1634). But the king thought better of 
it, and the army was not sent. 

The Massachusetts Puritans did not have the Pilgrims' 
attitude toward religious freedom. They had crossed the 
sea for the purpose of establishing their own church, and 
they were determined to have no other in Massachusetts. 
Furthermore, they felt that at any moment a life-and-death 



56 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

struggle against the king might be forced upon them. They 
felt that their whole community had need to be all of one 
mind, perfectly free from dissensions and controversies of 
every sort, in order to be able to put forth its full strength at 
any moment. Thus we find an explanation not only of the 

care with which they 
sought to prevent 
Royalists from becom- 
ing freemen but of the 
severity with which 
they punished any dis- 
agreement with the 
authorities of the 
Church of Massachu- 
setts. No braver men 
than these Puritans 
have ever lived, and 
none more determined 
to be free ; but many 
of them had become 
embittered against all 
other religions and 
were grown proud, 
stern, and vindictive. 
52. Roger Williams; 
Mrs. Hutchinson. The 
Puritans were reform- 
ers, and among reformers one new idea inevitably leads 
to another. The minister at Salem, Roger Williams, came 
to the conclusion that it was not sufficient for him and 
his friends to be free religiously; they ought to be willing 
to allow ''soul liberty," as he called it, to everyone, even to 
those whose opinions they condemned. But if this were done, 
Massachusetts might before long contain many people who 
would not be friendly to the Puritan government and who 




I Harper & Brothers 

PURITANS ON THEIR WAY TO WORSHIP 

From " Old Times in the Colonies," by Charles 
Carleton Coffin. Drawn by Howard Pyle 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



57 



would side against it in a struggle with the king. The stern 
rulers of the colony decided to arrest Williams and send him 
back to England. Hearing of their intention, Williams fled 
into the wilderness in the dead of winter (1635). He wan- 
dered long among the snows, sleeping in hollow trees, but at 
length found shelter in the wigwam of the kindly Massasoit. 




THE TRIAL OF ANNE HUTCHINSON WHICH LED TO HER EXPULSION 



Less fortunate was a brilliant woman, Mrs. Anne Hutch- 
inson. She drew together at her house in Boston a group of 
women that has been spoken of as ''the first women's club 
in America." Mrs. Hutchinson may be called the first 
woman lecturer of America. She used to address the women 
at her house, discussing the sermons of the Boston pastors 
and expressing views of her own that were frequently not in 
accord with theirs. Soon she became famous. Her influence 
was so great and there was so much criticism of the regular 
ministers that the authorities became alarmed. Mrs. Hutch- 
inson was tried, condemned, and ordered to leave the colony. 
With her children she sought a new home in the wilderness 
(see section 57). Four years later a party of hostile Indians 
destroyed both the mother and the children. 



58 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

53. Education in Early Massachusetts. Ten years after 
the first arrivals there were twenty thousand Puritans in 
Massachusetts. Many of them had been people of high 
standing in England ; many of the clergymen were noted 
scholars of Oxford and Cambridge. Partly because the 
whole Puritan movement was deeply influenced by the 
scholars, partly because there was obvious need to teach 
the children what the colony stood for, Massachusetts made 
haste to establish schools. The first American public school 
was opened at Boston (1635). Compulsory education in 
America began with the early Massachusetts laws requiring 
every town in the colony to support a school. At a little 
town near Boston the oldest college^ of the United States 
was founded (1636) and named after a pious clergyman, 
John Harvard. The name of the town was changed to Cam- 
bridge, because Harvard, as well as many other Puritan 
clergymen, had graduated from the famous university of 
that name in England. 

Connecticut 

54. The Puritans move Westward. There was not a great 
deal of good farm land in Massachusetts. The valleys of 
the rivers were generally narrow. The high land on either 
side of the rivers was barren, stony, and hard to cultivate. 
The valley land — so rapid was the immigration to Massa- 
chusetts — soon had as large a population as it could well 
support. Later emigrants had either to struggle with the 
barren hill country, where their plowshares were likely to 
be broken by the rocks, or to search for new valley land in 
the Western forest. They heard that there was plenty of 
such land along the lower course of the Connecticut River, 
but that region did not belong to Massachusetts. Strictly 

^A still earlier attempt to found a college was made in Virginia under the 
name of Henrico University, .^fter a promising start it was destroyed by 
the Indians in 1622 (see section 94). 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



59 



speaking, none of the Massachusetts people had a right to 
go there. However, they beheved that the king would grant 
the land to whoever was the first to settle upon it. Many 
people decided to take their chances. They packed up their 
household goods and set out on a journey through the 
woods, hoping to find better homes in the Connecticut valley. 




EMIGRANTS ON THE WAY FROM MASSACHUSETTS TO CONNECTICUT 



A large company of such emigrants was led by one of the 
finest characters in New England history, the Reverend 
Thomas Hooker. Following an Indian trail and driving 
before them a herd of cattle, the party took two weeks to 
penetrate the forests and reach the sunny banks of the 
broad Connecticut. There they founded the present city 
of Hartford (1636). 

55. The New Towns that formed Connecticut. Soon other 
settlements were made — some in the Connecticut valley, 
some on the shores of Long Island Sound. Sometimes the 
settlers came,, as Hooker's party came, through the woods 



6o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

from Massachusetts; sometimes they came by sea, direct 
from England. The city of New Haven (1638), founded 
soon after Hartford, was the most important of these later 
settlements. 

Each of these little towns was at first a separate republic 
that managed its affairs in a town meeting as the New Eng- 
enders had begun to do at Plymouth. But presently three 
river towns — Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor — united 
in a single community (1639). New Haven ^ and other towns 
in its vicinity for a long time refused to join them, but at 
last, under a royal charter, were included along with the river 
towns in the colony of Connecticut, to which was granted 
the unusual privilege of electing its governor (1662). 

56. A Free Commonwealth. Many of the immigrants who 
removed to Connecticut had another motive besides the 
search for land. They believed that government should 
express the wishes of the bulk of the people. In Massachu- 
setts Thomas Hooker had held this idea. He was strikingly 
in contrast with Governor Winthrop, an enemy of Roger 
Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson, who said, "The best part of 
a community is always the least, and of that part, the wiser 
are still less." Winthrop was willing to let the IMassachu- 
setts freemen elect an assembly to make laws, but none the 
less he wished to have the mass of men accept the leader- 
ship of a small class which should include the rich and the 
learned. But the new idea was rapidly spreading. That 
was one reason why so many people were willing to follow. 
Hooker into the wilderness. When the river towns formed 
their new state the influence of Hooker appeared in their 
written constitution, which put a great deal of power into 
the hands of the citizens and did not require the voters to 
be members of the Church. 

^See section 99, for the subsequent history of the separate colony of 
New Haven, 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



6i 



Rhode Island 

57. The Republic of Roger Williams. Roger Williams 
(section 52) left the Indians after his first winter in exile, 
determined to found a settlement outside the jurisdiction of 
Massachusetts. The 
place he selected was 
the shore of Narra- 
gansettBay. Recalled 
it Providence (1636) 
because of God's mer- 
ciful providence to 
him in his distress. 
Other exiles from 
Massachusetts, in- 
cluding Mrs. Hutch- 
inson and many of her 
followers, also made 
settlements on the 
shores of that great 
bay. All these drew 
together in a new com- 
monwealth under the 
leadership of Williams. It was a long time before the king 
would recognize them as a separate colony, but at length 
a royal charter marked out the boundaries of Rhode Island 
(1663) and permitted its people to elect their governor. 

58. Religious Freedom in Rhode Island. Williams invited 
people of all religions — Jews as well as Christians — to come 
to his colony and live in peace. His liberality is all the more 
noble because he was not lacking in devotion to his own 
faith. After his expulsion from the Church of Massachusetts 
he became attracted by the ideas of the Baptists, but there 
was no Baptist Church in America. In 1639, at Providence, 
Williams and eleven others declared themselves a Baptist 




ROGER WILLIAMS IN THE WIGWAM OF 
MASSASOIT 



62 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

congregation. One of the eleven baptized Williams accord- 
ing to the practice of the sect in England. Williams then 
baptized the others. Thus began the American Baptist 
Church, which now includes millions of members. 

59. The Quakers. Rhode Island stood up manfully for its 
principle of complete freedom in religion. Because of this it 
once came near to war with its powerful neighbor, Massa- 
chusetts. The dispute between the two colonies was over 
their treatment of a new sect called the Society of Friends, 
or the Quakers. 

The Quakers whom we know today are very unlike the 
Quakers of the seventeenth century. The sect began in 
protest against all forms of religious authority, and its 
early members"refused to show respect to any ruler, whether 
civil or religious. Even in the presence of his Majesty 
the king, these early Quakers refused stubbornly to take 
off their hats. They would not pay taxes for support 
of an established church. A peculiarity which led them 
to be looked upon as enemies of all government was their 
refusal to bear arms in time of war. Though many of 
them were quiet, kindly people, some felt called upon to 
express their singular views in a way that was bound to be 
resented. They would go into a church during service, 
rudely interrupt the minister, crying out that he stood for 
despotism and commanding him to come down from the 
pulpit and to hide his head in shame. 

To the stern men in Massachusetts who had exiled Wil- 
liams, the Quakers appeared to be destroyers of law and 
order. When Quakers appeared in the colony they were 
banished, but they insisted on returning, and at length 
several were hanged. 

While the feeling against Quakers was at its height they 
were given a refuge in Rhode Island. Thereupon Massachu- 
setts attempted to compel her tiny neighbor to cooperate in 
persecution. The refusal of Rhode Island was a turning 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 63 

point in Quaker history. A change of feeling soon followed 
in Massachusetts. The Quakers received more humane treat- 
ment ; gradually their methods changed and persecution 
died away. 

New Hampshire ; Maine 

60. Proprietary Government in New England; Mason and 
Gorges. Two Englishmen, John Mason and Sir Ferdinando 
Gorges, attempted to set up proprietary colonies (section 35) 
in New England. They obtained a grant of the region between 
the Merrimack and Kennebec Rivers, afterward divided into 
two ^'provinces" separated by the Piscataqua. Gorges took 
the eastern province ; Mason, the western. 

61. New Hampshire ; Influence of Mrs. Hutchinson. Mason 
named his province New Hampshire because his own birth- 
place was in old Hampshire in England. He was not an 
especially successful manager, and his colony was always 
more or less in confusion. After his death Massachusetts 
attempted to annex it. Finally, the king stepped in and 
made of New Hampshire a royal province (1679).^ 

During the confusion of Mason's time several towns were 
founded in New Hampshire, some with his consent, some 
without. Among early emigrants were refugees from Massa- 
chusetts. Once more we are reminded of that high-spirited 
woman who defied the rulers of Massachusetts, Mrs. Hutch- 
inson (section 52). One of her friends was the Reverend 
John Wheelwright, who, like his leader, was banished. Gath- 
ering a party of Mrs. Hutchinson's followers he led them 
across the Merrimack and founded the town of Exeter. Be- 
sides these emigrants from Massachusetts, New Hampshire 

iThe charter of Massachusetts gave it all the land between two lines — 
one three miles south of the Charles River; the other, three miles north of 
the Merrimack and westward to the Pacific. But was the north line to be 
measured at the mouth or at the source of the Merrimack ? Massachusetts 
said the source and claimed most of New Hampshire. Without settling the 
matter the king laid off New Hampshire as a separate colony. 



64 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

contained members of the Church of England, — Episcopa- 
lians, as we say, — who settled the towns of Dover (1627) 
and Portsmouth (1631). Thus, from the beginning New 
Hampshire permitted more religious freedom than did its 
great neighbor on the south. 

62. The Province of Maine. The eastern province was 
known as INIaine, or the Mainland. There Sir Ferdinando 
Gorges tried to play the part of a little king, ruling by means 
of his ^'deputy" in what is now the town of York. It was 
rather an odd kingdom. Sir Ferdinando had few subjects, 
and for a sovereign ruler he was very poor. Most of the 
neighbors in New Hampshire and Massachusetts were his 
enemies because Sir Ferdinando wanted to make the Church 
of England as powerful in ]\Iaine as was the Congregational 
Church in Massachusetts, but he lacked the money and the 
ability to carry out his schemes. 

At length Sir Ferdinando died, and his heirs sold the 
province to the Puritans of Massachusetts (1678). 

SUMMARY 

During the contention in England that preceded the Civil War 
m,any opponents of the king sought refuge in a part of North 
America which had been named New England. The first party 
of refugees, known as Separatists and afterwards as Pilgrims, 
founded Plymouth colony, which was virtually a little republic, 
though it was included in the British Empire. They governed 
themselves by means of town meetings in which most of the 
men took part and everything was decided by vote. The Pil- 
grims instituted the first American Thanksgiving Day. After 
seventy years of independent existence Plymouth was joined to 
its powerful neighbor, Massachusetts. 

English Puritans obtained a royal charter permitting them to 
organize a colony in IMassachusetts and required all the freemen of 
the colony to be members of the new church they had established. 
Roger Williams and Mrs. Anne Hutchinson became advocates of 
religious freedom and were compelled to leave the colony. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 65 

As the good land in eastern Massachusetts was rapidly taken 
up, a number of colonists removed into the Connecticut val- 
ley. Others joined the emigration because, like Williams and 
Mrs. Hutchinson, they had come to disapprove of the Massachu- 
setts law which required citizens to be church members. The emi- 
grants founded Connecticut, with a constitution which established 
religious freedom. 

Meanwhile Roger Williams, after his flight from Massachusetts, 
had gathered together other believers in religious freedom and 
had founded Rhode Island, where every sort of religion was 
permitted. 

Two attempts at proprietary governrnent were made in New 
England. Neither was successful. John Mason failed to make 
New Hampshire prosperous, and after his death the king con- 
verted it into a royal province. The other proprietary colony was 
Maine, where Sir Ferdinando Gorges tried to establish the Church 
of England. His heirs sold Maine to Massachusetts. 



AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher: Andrews, Colonial Self-Governmenf and *The 
Fathers of New England; Bassett, United States, 59-70 ; * Becker, 
Beginnings of the America^i People, 80-107; Channing, United States, 
I, chaps, x-xv ; *FiSKE, The Beginnings of New England; Hart, 
American History told by Contemporaries, I, chaps, xiv-xx ; II, chap, iii ; 
*0sGOOD, The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century; Tyler, 
Etigland in America, chaps, ix-xv, xix. 

For the Pupil: Collins, History of Vermont; Drake, The Making 
of New England; Faris, Real Stories from Our History ; Fassett, 
Colonial Life in New Hampshire ; Gordy, Colonial Days ; Haw- 
thorne, Grandfather's Chair; Higginson, Book of American Explorers; 
Long, American Patriotic Prose, 25-30 ; Moore-Tiffany, Pilgrims 
and Puritans ; Tappan, Letters from Colonial Children. 



PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. What great difference was there between the settlement of Virginia 
and the settlement of New England? 2. Why did the Pilgrims come to 
America? 3. How was Plymouth colony governed? 4. Is your town 



66 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

governed as Plymouth was? What differences between the two ways 
of a town ? Are you a member of any society that manages its affairs 
as Plymouth did ? If so, tell how the society would have to change to 
become monarchical in form. (The teacher can make this plain by 
describing, for example, the Salvation Army, a monarchical revival in 
the form of an association organized in exact imitation of a military 
army with no voting assemblies. It will also be easy in this connection 
to make plain the nature of representative government.)] 

5. Why did the Puritans organize the Massachusetts Bay Company ? 
6. How did they surprise the king? 7. Why did Roger Williams and 
Mrs. Hutchinson oppose the authorities of Massachusetts ? 8. Why did 
colonists from Massachusetts pass on into Connecticut ? (Two answers) 
Q. How does the movement into Connecticut remind one of the first 
migration (sections 2, 54) ? (An opportunity is given here to touch 
upon the economic motive in so many shiftings of population — the 
need either of food or of employment or of both.) 

10. What was the chief feature of the Connecticut constitution ? 
II. How did the colony which Roger Williams founded differ from 
that which he had left?' [12. Compare the laws with regard to religion 
in England, Holland, Virginia, Maryland, Plymouth, Massachusetts, 
Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire (sections 36, 39, 45, 
51, 52, 57, 59, 61).] 13. What proprietary colonies were there in New 
England ? 14. How was the royal province of New Hampshire estab- 
lished ? 15. What was done with Maine after the death of the Lord 
Proprietor ? 

PART THREE: THE DUTCH AND SWEDES IN AMERICA 

63. The Dutch and the English. While Englishmen were 
dotting with their plantations the shores of the James and 
Potomac Rivers and of Chesapeake Bay in the South, 
while their towns were springing up on the bleak coast of 
New England and along the Connecticut River in the North, 
another nation had pushed in between these two groups of 
settlements and had planted a hostile colony on land which 
the English regarded as their own (section 16). The Dutch 
had seized the great harbor at the mouth of the Hudson and 
the noble hills along its course. Curiously enough their 
leader was an Englishman, Henry Hudson. He had made a 
great reputation by two daring voyages into the Arctic Ocean. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 67 

After vainly trying to find a way to the Pacific and to India 
by sailing northeast, past Scandinavia, Hudson proposed to 
his men to give up the hunt in this direction and to try 
instead to find the supposed ''northwest passage." The men 
agreed. Therefore Hudson steered to the west and coasted 
along America to the region indicated by Smith. At the 
entrance of what he thought was an arm of the sea, stretch- 
ing far into the land, his ship, the Halj Moon, came to 
anchor (1609). 

Hudson had found the mouth of the great river which 
bears his name. He explored it as far north as the spot 
where Albany now stands, and only when the water became 
too shallow for him to go farther did he give up his search 
for the ''northwest passage." Returning to Europe, he was 
forbidden by the English king to serve further in foreign em- 
ploy. An English company was formed which provided him 
with a ship and men for another voyage of Arctic discovery. 
He set sail, but never returned. His grave is probably in the 
waters of Hudson Bay or in the icy seas beyond. 

New Netherland 

64. The First Dutch Settlement. The Dutch were prompt 
to take advantage of Hudson's discovery. In defiance of the 
English, who had claimed this coast for more than a hundred 
years, their traders began at once to make voyages to the 
Hudson. The Indians in that region had a great supply of 
valuable furs which they were willing to sell for almost 
nothing. At the mouth of the river, on Manhattan Island, 
a trading post was established by the Dutch very soon after 
Hudson's visit. Colonists began to arrive in 1623. In 1626 
Holland sent over Peter Minuit, who bought the whole island 
from the Indians. The various things he gave them in return 
were worth altogether about twenty-four dollars. Minuit 
and his men built a village on Manhattan Island and called 
it New Amsterdam after old Amsterdam in Holland. 



68 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

65. New Netherland. The Dutch now thought they had a 
chance to build up a colony of their own in North America. 
In those days Holland was a powerful country, England's 
rival in trade, and the Dutch thought the English would 
never be strong enough to drive them away. INIany worthy 
Dutch families consented to emigrate, and New Amsterdam 
grew to be a considerable town. There was a fort at the 
south tip of the island, and the place where it stood is called 
the Battery to this day. Other towns were also built by the 
Dutch. One of these was named Fort Orange in honor of the 
Prince of Orange, a great nobleman of Holland. Today we 
call it Albany. To the whole of this region which they 
were trying to make their own, the Dutch gave the name 
''New Netherland." 

In order to hasten the settlement of New Netherland the 
Dutch authorities gave large tracts of land to wealthy Hol- 
landers, who promised to pay the cost of taking emigrants 
to America. A man who received one of these tracts was 
called a patroon. The land given him fronted sixteen miles 
on the Hudson and extended inland indefinitely. Not only 
was the land his, but he was allowed to govern the emigrants 
who settled on it and cultivated his farms. He had his own 
court in which his tenants were tried if accused of violating 
their obligations to the patroon. The power, as well as 
the land of the patroon, descended from father to son. The 
greatest patroon was named Van Rensselaer. He owned 
more land than is now contained in the state of Rhode 
Island ; the tenants who dwelt on his numerous farms would 
have made a small army. Much of this vast property re- 
mained in his family for many generations. In the nine- 
teenth century the last Patroon Van Rensselaer sold to the 
state of New York his right to hold courts on his property. 




o 



>< a 

si 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



69 



Delaware 

66. New Sweden the Rival of New Netherland ; significance 
of Rivers in Colonization. Soon after the Dutch had 
estabhshed their first post on Manhattan Island they 
crossed the Hudson and at Bergen (161 7) made the first 
European settlement in 




New Jersey. They went 
still further to the south 
and built a fort near 
where Philadelphia now 
stands. They then found 
that they were not the 
only people trying to 
conquer lands which the 
English claimed as part 
of their empire. 

In those days Sweden 
was also a great power. 
Its rulers determined to 
get for Sweden a part 
of the rich new country 
which all the nations so 
dearly longed to have. 
They sent over a force 
of soldiers and emi- 
grants, who hunted for some unoccupied place on the coast 
which would serve as the beginning of a colony. 

You will notice that all the settlements we have been hear- 
ing about were formed along the valleys of the rivers. The 
Virginians went up the James. The Marylanders went up 
the Potomac and up Chesapeake Bay to the Susquehanna. 
The New Englanders also went inland along rivers — the 
Charles, the Merrimack, the Kennebec, the Connecticut. The 
Dutch went up the Hudson. Thus the settlers could 



LANDS CLAIMED BY THE DUTCH 



70 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



penetrate far inland and still have easy communication with 
the sea. The rivers served them in the place of roads. 

The Swedes came to the Delaware. It lay opened and un- 
occupied, although the west shore of the river was included 
in the area- granted to Lord Baltimore. Ignoring Baltimore, 
the Swedes built a town (1638) which has since taken the 

name of Wilmington and is 
now the chief city of Dela- 
ware. At first, in honor of 
the queen of Sweden, it was 
called Christina. To the sur- 
rounding country was given 
the name ''New Sweden." 
From this settlement the 
people of Delaware date the 
history of their state. 

67. The Dutch conquer New 
Sweden. For a while New 
Sweden and New Netherland 
grew peaceably side by side. 
Very likely the good people 
at Christina had no suspicion 
that a storm was brewing at New Amsterdam. Going quietly 
about their business, they gave no heed to the growth of ill- 
feeling between the Dutch and the New Englanders. If 
they knew that both nations wanted the Connecticut valley, 
and that England and Holland were on the verge of war, 
they did not see that this quarrel might mean trouble for 
New Sweden. However, the governor of New Netherland, 
a stout soldier, Peter Stuyvesant, looked eastward and saw 
that the English might at any moment come against him in 
battle array. He looked southward, and it occurred to him 
that if the English were to come to an understanding with 
Sweden, he would be attacked from both sides. He said 
to himself, ''That shall never be." 




QUEEN CHRISTINA OF SWEDEN 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



71 



One day the people of Christina saw seven ships come 
sailing up the Delaware River. Aboard them was Stuyve- 
sant with a Dutch army. Taken by surprise, the Swedes were 
compelled to surrender. The Dutch flag was run above the 
roofs of Christina, and the country was proclaimed a part 
of New Netherland under the rule of the Dutch governor. 

68. The Last Dutch Gover- 
nor. Peter Stuyvesant was 
the last of the Dutch gover- 
nors of New Netherland. He 
ruled the colony seventeen 
years. This determined man 
had served Holland bravely 
and had lost a leg in battle. 
He had a high temper which 
years of soldiering and gov- 
erning did not improve. We 
have descriptions of him 
stamping about his council 
chamber, pounding on the 
floor with the wooden peg 
that replaced his lost right 
foot. His temper flamed forth when the people of New 
Amsterdam petitioned for the right to vote. His angry 
reply was to the effect that if he granted the petition ^Hhe 
thief will vote for a thief, and the smuggler for a smuggler." 
However, the stormy governor had to yield something to 
the people and consented to the establishment of a council 
of ''Nine Men" to superintend taxation. 

Governor Stuyvesant is commemorated in the names of 
two famous streets. A lane which led to his farm, or ''great 
bowery," outside the city has become the crowded thorough- 
fare called today the Bowery. Another lane ran alongside 
a wooden wall which he built across the island on the north 
side of the town. Today we call this lane Wall Street. 




PETER STUYVESANT 



72 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

69. The Coming of the English; the People against the 
Governor. While the stout old governor was keeping his 
colony in readiness, as he thought, to repel the English, 
changes were taking place which he did not comprehend. 
New Amsterdam was ceasing to be wholly a Dutch town. So 
many strangers had come in that the laws had to be pub- 
Hshed in three languages — Dutch, French, and English. 




SCENE ON BOWLING GREEN IN OLD NEW AMSTERDAM 



This mixed population knew how the more fortunate English 
colonies were governed, and contrasted English freedom with 
the despotic rule of Stuyvesant. Though the governor did 
not suspect it, they were saying among themselves that they 
would be better off as an English colony than as they were. 
At last the English came. A royal fleet which had 
touched at Boston and taken aboard a New England army 
sailed up the bay and trained its guns on New Amsterdam. 
Brave old Stuyvesant was summoned to surrender. His 
reply was that he would die first. He then discovered what 
a change had taken place right under his eyes. The towns- 
people rose against him. The English commander gave 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 73 

them a promise that in every respect they should always 
have the full rights of Englishmen ; thereupon they forced 
the governor, much against his will, to surrender. The flag 
of England was hoisted above the city (August 29, 1664), 
and New Amsterdam was renamed New York. 

SUMMARY 

Henry Hudson, in the service of Holland, explored the Hud- 
son River. Though it lay inside the region which England claimed 
as her own, the Dutch determined to occupy the Hudson valley. 
Their colony was called New Netherland, with its capital at New 
Amsterdam on Manhattan Island. To encourage colonization the 
Dutch granted large estates to landlords called patroons, who had 
the privilege of holding their own courts. Meanwhile the Swedes 
had also set the English at defiance. They had planted a 
colony on the Delaware inside the limits of Maryland. The Dutch 
in New Netherland knew that England was going to make war 
upon them and were afraid that England would come to an under- 
standing with Sweden so as to get her aid against New Nether- 
land. They took the Swedes by surprise and conquered their 
colony. Soon afterwards the expected attack on New Netherland 
was made by the English. The last Dutch governor, Peter Stuy- 
vesant, wished to fight it out, but the people rebelled against him. 
They were dissatisfied with Dutch rule and preferred to live 
under the English flag. They forced Stuyvesant to surrender, and 
New Amsterdam became New York. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : *Andrews, Colonial Self-Governmetif, chaps, iv, v ; 
Bassett, Unifed States, 72-76; *Becker, Beginnings of the American 
People, 107-160; Channing, United States, I, chaps, xvi-xix ; II, 31-40; 
FiSKE, Djitch and Quaker Colonies, I, 96-126; *GooDwix, The Dutch 
and English on the Hudson. 

For the Pupil: Barstow, Explorers and Settlers, i 71-188; Drake, 
The Makitig of Virginia and the Middle Colonies, chap, iv ; Gordv, 
Stories of Early American History, chap, xiv; Higginson, Book of 
American Explorers, chap, xiii ; Redway, The Making of the Empire 
State; Southworth, The Story of the Empire State. 



74 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. How did the Dutch acquire New Netherland ? 2. What was a 
patroon ? What privileges did a patroon have that no rich man has 
today ? Suppose you were a farmer renting your farm from a modern 
millionaire, and suppose the millionaire were suddenly made a patroon, 
what changes would take place in your life? (An opportunity here 
for the teacher to explain that the feudal landholder governed his ten- 
ants and that in modern times the state has taken this power away 
from the landlord. For city children a great apartment house will 
serve as illustration. Imagine the owner holding court and punishing 
a boy for beating another in a hallway.) 

3. What other nation defied the Enghsh by forming an American 
colony ? Why did the Swedes go to the Delaware ? [4. Draw a map 
showing how the early colonies were all located on rivers or bays (see 
sections 25, 30, 37, 44, 50, 54, 55, 57, 60, 62, 64, 66).] 5. Why did the 
Dutch expect to be attacked by the English (see sections 64, 67) ? 
(Two answers) What did they do to prevent an alliance between 
England and Sweden ? 

6. Why were the Dutch afraid of the Swedes ? 7. What sort of 
man was the last governor of New Netherland ? 8. Why did he consent 
to the establishment of the council of the Nine Men? 9. Why did the 
people of New Amsterdam wish to be included in the British Empire ? 
10. When the English came what did the people do? [11. How much 
of modern New York was comprised in New Amsterdam ? (See sec- 
tion 68 ; compare a map of Greater New York. See also article "New 
York," in any good encyclopedia.)] 

PART FOUR: THE COLONIES OF KING CHARLES II 

70. Significance of the Settlement of the Colonies in Groups. 
The English were now in possession of most if not all of the 
coast explored by Cabot in 1498. IVIore than fifty years had 
passed (1607- 1664) since the beginning at Jamestown of 
the period of successful colonization. Since then the king 
and the Parliament, Cavaliers and Puritans, had fought the 
great Civil War (section 40). Charles I had been executed 
by the successful parliamentarians. Cromwell had reigned 
as Lord Protector (section 41). His death had been fol- 
lowed by a change of feeling in England and a revival of 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 75 

attachment to the old royal family, the Stuarts. The son of 
Charles I, who was living in exile with very little money and 
having a hard time to make ends meet, was brought home to 
England and crowned king as Charles II (1660). Early in 
his reign New Netherland was annexed (section 69) and the 
gap between the Northern and Southern colonies (section 
63) was closed. 

It will explain a great deal in later American history if 
we bear in mind that except for these troubles in England 
in the seventeenth century the beginning of our country 
might have been very different from what it was. Because 
of the Civil War in England two things happened : ( i ) some 
American colonies were settled almost altogether by members 
of one of the English political parties, some by members of 
the other; therefore, (2) from the start the people of New 
England and the people of the Southern colonies looked at 
life in widely different ways. The stern Puritans (section 
50), whose Ironsides (section 41) had shattered the king's 
army, when they thought of emigrating, turned toward one 
of those New England colonies controlled by members of 
their own party; the Cavaliers (section 42), who loved the 
brilliant life of the royal court and who were devoted 
to the Church of England, turned, as inevitably, to those 
colonies where Cavaliers were in the majority — Virginia 
and Maryland. 

71. The Basis of the American Republic. In studying the 
history of our country our chief aim is to form a clear 
impression of how all these communities, with others estab- 
lished later, grew at last into one great community, the 
United States. But this great community never could have 
been established if the first two groups of the American 
English had had nothing in common. 

The differences between the North and the South were not 
nearly so great as their similarities. Out of many similarities 
five are of most importance: (i) all the colonists thought 



76 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of themselves as Englishmen and were proud of the great 
achievements of English history ; ( 2 ) all had a priceless 
common property in the English language and English liter- 
ature ; (3) all had the great system of laws, centuries old, 
known as the English common law, which is the basis of our 
law today ; ( 4 ) all were citizens of a great empire, and all, 
however they might quarrel with the king, felt that the 
government in London was the connecting link binding 
Englishmen together ; ( 5 ) lastly, in spite of their bitter 
political disagreements all felt that as free Englishmen they 
had certain rights which their ancestors had acquired in 
long struggles with the king, rights which were now ''inalien- 
able" — that is, beyond the power of any government to take 
away. What some of these rights were we shall hear in the 
next chapter (section 98). We shall hear of them again and 
again, until at last we shall see them incorporated in the 
Constitution of the United States. 

72. The Third and Fourth Groups of Colonies. Charles II 
reigned twenty-five years. During his reign, in the middle 
country between Maryland and New England, four new 
colonies were established — New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware. These formed a third group geographi- 
cally. Far to the south, below Virginia, there were the 
beginnings of a fourth colonial group, the Carolinas. In all 
these colonies the settlers had the same five reasons for feel- 
ing that they, the New Englanders and the Virginians, were 
all one people. At the same time their ways of living caused 
them to develop marked peculiarities of their own. In the 
middle colonies these peculiarities had more in common with 
the life of New England than with the life farther south. 
On the other hand, the habits and customs of the Carolinians 
were very different from those of New England and very 
like those of Virginia. By degrees most of the colonies of 
the third group, especially after they became states of the 
Union, grew to think of themselves, along with the New 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 77 

England States and other still younger communities, as 
forming the ^' North." The fourth group of colonies, with 
others that were formed south and west of them, came to 
think that they, with Virginia and Maryland, formed the 
''South." 

New York 

73. The Lands of the Duke of York. King Charles made 
a present to his brother, the Duke of York, of all the lands 
that had been conquered from the Dutch and the Swedes. 
The Hudson valley was, of course, the most valuable part 
of the duke's possessions. This he kept for himself, and 
over it he ruled as Lord Proprietor. But he gave it a new 
name. It became the province of New York — as if it were 
the American part of his English duchy of old York. 
In England there is both a region and a city called York. 
As a further reminder of England, the capital of the 
province took the same name. New Amsterdam became 
New York City.' 

The duke was a pitiless ruler, and the people of his 
province were often discontented. They struggled hard to 
establish a free legislature of their own like the House of 
Burgesses in Virginia (section 32) or the General Court in 
Massachusetts (section 46, note). At length the duke per- 
mitted the establishment of the General Assembly of the 
province of New York (1683). But the Assembly at once 
drew up a "Charter of Liberties," providing for complete 
freedom, whereupon the duke, who had now become 
king as James II, abolished the Assembly (1686) and con- 
verted New York into a royal province. 

iThe eastern boundary of the duke's province was long in doubt. He 
tried to make out that it was the Connecticut River. However, along the 
southern part he was forced to yield to Massachusetts and Connecticut, but 
north of Massachusetts he made good his claim. The region which is now 
Vermont was part of New York until the time of the Revolution. 



78 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



New Jersf.y 

74. Quakers settle New Jersey. The duke granted the 
lower part of his lands between the Delaware River and 
the sea (section 66) to two noblemen, Lord Berkeley and 
Sir George Carteret. As Carteret had distinguished himself 

fighting for Charles I in the island 
of Jersey, the duke named his 
colony New Jersey. Berkeley and 
Carteret were eager for money, 
and they sold their rights in New 
Jersey to what we should call 
today a ''syndicate" of wealthy 
Quakers. One of these was Wil- 
liam Penn, of whom we shall hear 
again. At last New Jersey was 
given back to the king (1702), 
who joined it for a while to New 
York, but subsequently made it 
a separate province (1738). 

The Quakers set a good example 
to the colonists by treating the 
Indians exactly as they treated 
the whites. As a result the New 
Jersey Indians became their fast friends, stood by them in 
times of danger, and aided them in times of peace. The story 
is that if they found a settler alone in the woods asleep, 
instead of harming him they would say among themselves, 
''He is an Englishman; let him alone." The Quakers of 
New Jersey were noted for the freedom allowed in their 
colony. The people worked hard, made their own laws, 
and each man attended what church he liked best. Things 
went so well with them it became a saying that there were no 
poor people in New Jersey. 




MAP SHOWING SETTLEMENTS 
IN NEW JERSEY 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



79 



Pennsylvania '' ' 

75. King Charles's Debt to Perm. A rich man by the name 
of Penn, an admiral in the British navy, lent large sums 
to King Charles II. As Charles very seldom had money to 
spare, the loans from Admiral Penn went unpaid year after 
year. At last the admiral died 
and left a son named William. 
This William Penn, though a 
close friend of both the king 
and the Duke of York, aston- 
ished them by becoming a 
Quaker. He took up with 
his whole heart the belief of 
the Quakers in complete po- 
litical and religious freedom. 
From the admiral his father 
he inherited a fortune, part of 
which he spent in helping 
other Quakers to build up 
New Jersey. Penn concluded 
that what he wanted most in 

this world was the chance to establish a country where men 
should be truly free. It occurred to him that the king might 
enable him to do so by giving him a proprietary colony, and 
then he thought of the money which the king owed him as 
the heir of his father. It amounted to sixteen thousand 
pounds — a great sum for those days. Penn asked the king 
to discharge this debt by making him Lord Proprietor of 
the country west of the Delaware. This easy way of getting 
out of debt suited King Charles. Penn became Lord Pro- 
prietor (1681) of a great region which he named Penn's 
Forest, or Pennsylvania.^ 




WILLIAM PENN 



' Later there was a dispute about the extent of the new province. When 
it came to be laid off it overlapped the northern part of Maryland. As has 



8o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

76. Penn's Unselfish Plans. Penn was one of those lofty 
characters who are not controlled by selfish motives. He 
did not use his power as proprietor to make himself a great 
prince ; on the contrary, he drew up a constitution for his 
colony in which he gave away much of his power. His 
purpose, he said, was to arrange things so that ''the will of 




THE PENNSYLVANIA COLONY 

one man should not hinder the good of a whole country." 
His constitution was called the Frame of Government. It 
guaranteed to the people of Pennsylvania complete religious 
freedom and also the right to make their own laws through 
a legislature of their own choice. Penn may be regarded as 
one of the chief founders of free government in America. 



been said: "If the Maryland boundaries were right, Philadelphia was a 
Maryland town, and if the Pennsylvania boundaries were right, Baltimore 
was a Pennsylvania town." The proprietors of the two colonies quarreled 
over this for many years. At last they compromised on the present bound- 
ary between Maryland and Pennsylvania. They had it surveyed by two 
men, Mason and Dixon. That is how we get the phrase "Mason and 
Dixon's line." It came in time to mean the whole line separating the North 
and the South. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



Penn sent out an invitation to ''all thrifty men" who 
would live at peace with their neighbors to come to Penn- 
sylvania. This invitation was accepted by many of Penn's 
fellow Quakers. Other immigrants came from Wales and still 
others from Scotland. Pious Germans, who could not have 
freedom of religion at home, 
crossed the sea to found Ger- 
mantown in Pennsylvania. 
Other pious people from Ger- 
many came over and founded 
Bethlehem and other villages. 
In less than twenty years 
twenty thousand immigrants 
settled in Pennsylvania. 

Among the first to come 
was Penn himself (1682). 
He proceeded at once to lay 
out a city. Apparently Penn 
did not like the form of city 
with which he was familiar in 
Europe, where, generally, the 
streets wind and twist in all 

directions. He laid off his city in regular squares with 
streets at right angles. This plan has been followed in hun- 
dreds of American cities and towns built since his day. 
Penn called his city by the Greek name of Philadelphia, 
which means the ''city of brotherly love." 

77. The Treaty with the Indians. Very characteristic of 
Penn was his treatment of the Indians. He took no land, 
either for himself or his settlers, without first calling the 
Indians together and buying it from them at a fair price. 
These agreements with the Indians are often spoken of as 
"treaties." A tree under which the most famous of them 
took place was long remembered as the "Treaty Elm." 
Many other men had bargained with the Indians and had 




WILLIAM PENN S WIFE 



82 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

made them fair promises. Penn not only made such prom- 
ises but kept them, which too many others failed to do. 
Among the Indians his justness and goodness became a tra- 
dition. Long afterwards their veneration for his memory 
was a marvel to European travelers. 

78. Another Royal Bargain : the Sale of Delaware. It 
will be remembered that New Sweden (section 66) in spite 




PENN'S treaty with the INDIANS 



of being altogether inside the limits of Maryland (sec- 
tion 36) was given by the king to his brother the Duke of 
York (section 73). The duke, always eager to get money, 
sold it to Penn. A protest from Maryland was disregarded, 
and thus Penn became Lord Proprietor over two colonies. 
For a time the two colonies were ruled as one, but when the 
people of Delaware objected, Penn, true to his principles, 
heeded their objections and made their country a separate 
colony. It was known as the "Lower Counties." When the 
Revolution began in 1776 the inhabitants declared their 
region an independent state and named it Delaware. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



83 



The Carolinas 

79. The Eight Favorites; Settlement of Carolina. King 
Charles II wished to reward a group of eight lords and 
gentlemen whose friendship had helped to make him king. 
He decided to make one huge colony and allow these eight 
men to control it 
in common. They 
were to form a 
Board, and when 
one of them died 
his heir was to 
take his place. 
This was to go on 
forever. They were 
all to be called 
Lords Proprietary. 
Their Board was 
to have much the 
same power in its 
colony that Lord 
Baltimore had in 
Maryland (section 
35) and Penn in Pennsylvania (section 75). The land 
given to them extended from Virginia to Florida and from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific. This immense territory was 
named Carolina. It included the site of Raleigh's colony 
on Roanoke Island (section 18). 

80. Liberal Government of Carolina; Huguenot Settlements. 
Chief among the Lords Proprietary of Carolina was the 
Earl of Shaftesbury, who was a close friend of the celebrated 
philosopher John Locke. The earl asked Locke to draw 
up an ideal plan of government to be put into opera- 
tion in Carolina. Locke prepared a plan called the Funda- 
mental Constitutions. The government of the colony was 




^^t. Augustine 



LATER SOUTHERN COLONIES 



84 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to be placed largely in the hands of a group of rich men 
called landgraves, whose power and estates were to descend 
from father to son. But the scheme of the philosopher did 
not please the settlers in Carolina, and before long it was 
abandoned. However, the Fundamental Constitutions wil' 
always be remembered for at least one of their provisions. 




CHARLESTON IN 1673, AS SHOWN IN AN OLD PRINT 

This was that if any nine people called themselves a church 
the government would consider them a church and allow them 
to hold their services unmolested. The spirit of this provi- 
sion was never lost sight of in Carolina. By degrees, to be 
sure, the Episcopal Church became the leading denomination 
of the colony. Once there was a bold attempt to break up 
the other churches and make the Episcopal Church supreme 
(1704), as it was in Virginia (section 39), but the attempt 
completely failed, and Carolina kept her doors open to 
persecuted Christians from many lands. Three of her early 
governors were Quakers. Many French Protestants, or 
Huguenots, came to Carolina. They had left France because 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



85 



its great king, Louis XIV, had issued a decree forbidding 
them to practice their religion. So it happened that while 
Catholics persecuted by the king of England found refuge 
in one part of our country (section 36), Protestants perse- 
cuted by the king of France found refuge in another. 

81. The Rivers in Carolina Life; Albemarle. In Carolina 
— more, even, than elsewhere — settlements were pushed 




A LANDING IN THE PROVINCE OF NORTH CAROLINA 

From Faris's " Real Stories from Our History " 

inland along the rivers and the arms of the sea. The very 
earliest of these settlements were made along the shores of 
Albemarle Sound. From there the settlers worked their way 
inland. Most of these early settlers came from Virginia and, 
as in Virginia, began at once to raise tobacco, but soon they 
began extracting turpentine from the pine trees that grew 
thick all about them. The tall trunks of the pines made 
excellent masts for ships. The men of Albemarle became 
traders, especially with New England, in tobacco, turpen- 
tine, and pinewood. From these Albemarle settlements has 
developed the rich state of North Carolina. 



86 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




THE 



SMITH 



82. The Rice Industry; Charles Town. Meantime, far to 
the south, at a point where two rivers joined to form a noble 
harbor, was founded the city of Charles Town, known today 
as Charleston (1670). It grew rapidly and in time became 
the center of a great trade in rice. Here again use was made 
of the rivers. Rice requires plenty of water in its culti- 
vation. In the vicinity of Charleston, along all the rivers 

of that section, the land 
is so low that it can easily 
be flooded by means of 
canals leading the fresh 
water from the rivers 
over the fields. To keep 
out the salt water, which 
at high tide might over- 
flow the fields, it was 
necessary to build dikes. 
All this made the culti- 
vation of rice very ex- 
pensive, but there was a great demand for rice, and the 
planters who owned the rice fields rapidly grew rich. All 
along the rivers they built themselves stately mansions 
surrounded by huge oak trees. 

83. Danger from Spain; Pirates; Discontent with the Pro- 
prietors. The Carolinians quarreled with the Board of Pro- 
prietaries because they thought they were not sufficiently 
protected against the Spaniards and against pirates. In the 
latter part of the seventeenth century pirates were numerous 
all up and down the American coast. At one time they regu- 
larly stopped every ship coming into or going out of Charles 
Town and forced it to pay toll, and the Proprietaries would 
not do anything to mend matters. At length the colonists 
took things into their own hands. A little fleet was equipped 
at Charles Town and the command given to Colonel William 
Rhett. He boldly sailed forth, met the greatest of the 



HOUSE OF LANDGRAVE 
IN SOUTH CAROLINA 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 87 

pirates — Stede Bonnet — in battle, took Bonnet prisoner, 
and carried him back to Charles Town, where he and his 
men were hanged. 

The discontent with the Proprietaries ended at last in 
open rebellion. The colonists appealed to the king, George I, 
to put down the Proprietaries and make Carolina a royal 
province. After some hesitation the king bought Carolina 
from the Proprietaries and separated it into the two royal 
provinces of North and South Carolina (1729). 

SUMMARY 

It is important to remember that the colonies were settled in 
groups. Members of each political party in England emigrated 
to colonies where their party was in control. Puritans came to 
New England ; Royalists to Virginia. Thus began a marked dif- 
ference between the North and the South. But all the colonists 
had so much in common that they were able to form at last one 
great community, which became the United States. 

During the reign of Charles II four middle colonies were planted 
between Maryland and New England, and also the settlement of 
the Carolinas was begun. 

All the lands which the Dutch and Swedes had occupied were 
given by the king to the Duke of York. New Netherland, now 
New York, was harshly ruled by the duke as Lord Proprietor. 
When the General Assembly which he established drew up a 
Charter of Liberties, he abolished the Assembly. 

The territory east of the Delaware River was given the name 
^'New Jersey." Early New Jersey was conspicuous for its good 
relations with the Indians and for the prosperity of its inhabitants. 

William Penn became Lord Proprietor of what is now the state 
of Pennsylvania. The laws made by Penn gave complete freedom, 
both political and religious, to all his colonists. 

Penn also purchased from the Duke of York, in spite of the 
protest of Maryland, the region that had been New Sweden, 
which is now the state of Delaware. 

South of Virginia King Charles established the proprietary 
colony of Carolina, but instead of one proprietor he set over it a 



88 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

board of eight lords proprietary'. Carolina's earliest constitution 
permitted any nine people to call themselves a church and to prac- 
tice their religion. Both its commerce and its agriculture began 
in the settlements along Albemarle Sound and in the vicinity of 
Charles Town. It had two dangers : it was exposed to attack by 
Spaniards and by pirates. The Proprietaries would take no steps 
to defend the colony. After beating off the pirates the colonists 
persuaded the king to make the colony a royal province, which was 
later divided into North and South Carolina. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher: Andrews, Colonial Period, 42-61 ; *Colo)tial Self- 
Govenuncnl, chaps, ix-xi ; Bassett, United States, 80-88 ; *Becker, 
Begitinings of the American People, 107-160; *Channixg, United States, 
II, chaps, ii, vi-vii; *Fisher, The Quaker Colonies; Fiske, Old Virginia 
and her Neighbors, II, 270-278; Goodwin, 77/1? Dutch and English on 
the Hudson ; *i\IcCRADV, South Carolina under the Proprietary 
Government. 

For the Pupil: Alderman, A Brief Histoiy of iVorth Carolina; 
Barstow, 7'hc Colonists and the Revolution, 47-64 ; Drake, The 
Making of Virginia and the Middle Colonies, 188-219; Gordy, Stories 
of Early Ajnerican Histoty, chap, xv ; Hodges, Williatn Pentt ; Long, 
American Patriotic Prose, 13-15; McCorkle, Old-Time Stoiies of the 
Old North State ; Means, Palmetto Stories; Redwav, The Making of the 
Empire State; Southwoktu, The Sto?y of the Empire State; Stockton, 
Stoi-ies of New fersey; Walton and Brumbaugh, Stories of Pennsyl- 
vania and Once upon a Time in Delaware; White, The Making of 
South Carolina. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. What part of America did the English hold — not merely claim — 
when Charles II became king (sections 63, 70)? 2. How was the gap 
between the Northern and the Southern colonies closed ? 3. Why was 
there a difference at this time between the people of Virginia and 
the people of New England ? [4. Write a short statement of the 
effect of the English Civil War on American history (see sections 
41-42, 70-72).] 5. What did the Northern and the Southern colonies 
have in common ? 

6. How were the people of New York treated by their lord proprie- 
tor ? 7. Why was the General Assembly abolished ? [8- When James II 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 89 

succeeded to the throne, was it a good or bad time for the king to 
try to increase his power in America? When and how had previous 
kings tried to do so ? Why do you think the colonists would be likely 
to resist the king (see sections 33, 51, 69, 70, 73, 76) ?] 9. How did the 
Quakers get possession of New Jersey ? 

10. Did New Jersey remain under the control of the Quakers ? 
II. How did William Penn come to be a lord proprietor ? 12. What was 
guaranteed to the people of Pennsylvania by the Frame of Government? 
13. How did Penn acquire Delaware ? 14. How did Penn carry out in 
Delaware his belief that the people should rule themselves? 15. How 
was Carolina unlike other proprietary colonies? 16. What sort of gov- 
ernment was provided for by the Fundamental Constitutions ? 17. How 
was religious freedom secured? [18. Write a brief statement of how 
persecuted Europeans found religious freedom in America (see sections 
36, 39, 44, 50, 57, 59, 76, 80).] 

PART FIVE: THE THIRTEENTH COLONY 

84. James Oglethorpe. ]\Iany years elapsed between the 
founding of the last of the colonies of King Charles II and 
the founding of the last colony of all. The king of that 
day was George II. In his honor the last colony was named 
Georgia. The chief promoter was James Oglethorpe, who 
had two motives in founding the new colony : ( i ) to plant 
a ''buffer" state between the Carolinas and Spanish Florida 
and (2) to offer a new start in life to honest but unfortu- 
nate people who, having fallen into debt, were held by the 
courts of that day to be criminals and were cast into prison. 
Philanthropists cooperated with Oglethorpe because of the 
latter motive ; the king and Parliament approved his plan 
because of the former motive. Oglethorpe and several 
others were named ''trustees" of Georgia and received for 
twenty-one years authority similar to that of a lord proprietor 
(1732). The land given to the trustees was cut off from 
South Carolina and, like the Carolinas, was supposed to ex- 
tend to the Pacific. After ruling this great region for twenty 
years the trustees returned it to the king, who made it a 
royal province (1752). 



90 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



85. Savannah; Oglethorpe and the Indians. Oglethorpe 
himself brought over the first party of settlers. On a high 
bluff above a great river, a few miles from the sea, he laid 
off the city of Savannah, the first capital of Georgia. 

As might be ex- 
pected of such a man, 
Oglethorpe dealt justly 
with the Indians. He 
was aided by an In- 
dian, woman who, like 
Pocahontas in Virginia 
(section 26), married 
an Englishman and is 
known by her Eng- 
lish name, Mary IMus- 
grove. Through her 
influence with her 
kinsmen a treaty was 
made, and the Indians 
consented to Ogle- 
thorpe's occupation of 
the country around 
Savannah (1733). 

86. Conditions in Georgia : Slavery and Whisky Prohibited. 
The men who founded Georgia did not believe in slavery 
(section 31). Everywhere else in the colonies rich men 
held slaves, but Oglethorpe and his friends began by for- 
bidding the ownership of slaves in Georgia. IVIost of the 
early colonists were poor and were not interested in slave- 
holding, but after a while men of wealth began to settle 
in Georgia. Some of these were rich planters from South 
Carolina (section 82), where slaves were numerous. They 
wanted to bring their slaves with them. Thereupon arose 
a dispute between the two parts of the population — the 
poor people, who had no slaves, and the rich newcomers, 




JAMES OGLETHORPE 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



91 




JOHN WESLEY PREACHING TO THE INDIANS 



who had. The poor folks saw that if the rich were allowed to 
own slaves they would not give the poor employment, and 
it would be hard for them to make a living. Both sides 
appealed to the home government. But the rich slave- 
holders had more influence than their opponents. The plan of 
Oglethorpe was upset, and a law was made permitting slavery 
in Georgia (1750). 

Oglethorpe had also 
intended to prevent 
permanently the sale 
of whisky in Georgia. 
He thought not only 
that his settlers would 
work harder without 
whisky but that there 
would be less trouble 
with the Indians. One 
of the weaknesses of 
the Indians was a thirst for whisky, which they called 
fire water. Unscrupulous traders took advantage of their 
weakness and gave them whisky in exchange for furs. As 
a result many of the Indians became drunkards and grew 
steadily harder to restrain. Thus the selfishness of the 
traders, by degrading the Indians, subjected the settlers to 
increased dangers, but the traders cared only for their profits 
in trade and were willing to let the rest of their countrymen 
stiffer. So great was the influence of the traders that after 
much discussion the sale of whisky was permitted, 

87. Protestants in Georgia; the Founders of the Methodist 
Church. The early history of Georgia is closely connected 
with important religious events. From Scotland many 
Presbyterians of small means removed to Georgia. Many 
German Protestants came over and founded Lutheran settle- 
ments. Some celebrated preachers also came — partly to 
care for the emigrants, partly in the hope of converting the 



92 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED. STATES 

Indians. Chief among these were the two brothers John 
and Charles Wesley, who may be looked upon as the founders 
of the Methodist Church. Charles Wesley was secretary to 
Oglethorpe. John Wesley spent several years in the colony 
and gave much of his time to preaching among the Indians. 
The first hymn book which he prepared — one of the earliest 
publications, we may say, of the Methodist Church — was 
printed at Charles Town (1737). 

SUMMARY 

The thirteenth colony was founded by James Oglethorpe, partly 
to form a "buffer" state between Carolina and Spanish Florida, 
partly to afford a refuge for the poor. It was named Georgia 
after King George II. The government was in the hands of a 
board of "trustees" who had the power of Proprietaries. After 
twenty years they returned Georgia to the king, who made it a 
royal province. 

Oglethorpe wished to prevent slavery in Georgia and for a 
time succeeded. Later rich slaveholders who wished to come to 
the colony secured from the king permission to bring their slaves. 
The trustees of Georgia tried to prevent the sale of whisky, 
but in this also they were overruled because traders who had 
influence with the king wished to sell whisky to the Indians. 

Many Europeans discontented at home found the opportunity 
for a new start in Georgia. There was also much interest in con- 
verting the Indians ; John Wesley came over to Georgia and 
preached to them. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : *Andrews, Colonial Self-Govertimetit, chap, x ; 
Bassett, United States, 109-1 lo ; *Channing, United States, I, chap, xii ; 
Greene, Proviticial America, chap, xv ; Hart, History told by Con- 
temporaries. II, chaps, v-vi ; Jones, History of Georgia; *Tyler, Eng- 
land in America, chap. viii. 

For the Pupil : Brooks, History of Georgia ; Chappelle, Georgia 
History Stories \ GoRDV, Stories of Early American History, chap, xii; 
Masse Y and Wood, The Story of Georgia. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



93 



PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. Who founded the colony of Georgia? Why? 2. How was 
Georgia to be governed ? [3. Draw a map or write a description show- 
ing (a) what colonies began^ as proprietary, or company, colonies; 
(b) which, if any, began as royal provinces ; (c) which began in some 
other way (see sections 24, 36, 46, 50, 55, 57, 60, 73, 75, 78, 79, 84). 
(Keep this exercise in mind, because following Chapter VII you will 
be asked to tell what colonies had changed from one sort to another.)] 
[4. So far as you know, how many proprietary colonies were eventually 
changed into royal provinces (see sections 33, 61, 73, 74, 83, 84) ?] 

5. Who wanted to keep slavery out of Georgia ? Why ? 6. How 
was slavery established in Georgia ? 7. Why did Oglethorpe wish to 
prohibit the sale of whisky? (Two answers) 8. How was this early 
prohibition movement brought to an end ? 9. Give an earher instance 
of trading with the Indians in a way to injure the whites (section 21). 
[10. If you had an opportunity to engage in business which was injuri- 
ous to your fellow men, what ought you to do ? (The teacher has an 
opening here to lay the foundation of the idea of moral responsibility 
in business. The sale of impure foods, for example, has tempted as 
many men as has the sale of liquor to the Indians.)] 




INDIAN LIFE 




INDIANS ATTACKING A SETTLERS COTTAGE 



CHAPTER IV 



OLD TIMES IN THE COLONIES 



88. Early Colonial Hardships. The ships that brought 
over the first colonists were very different from the mam- 
moth vessels that bring over the thousands of immigrants 
today. The Mayflower or the Susan Constant could be loaded 
on the deck of one of the great modern liners. When these 
early ships were packed with people there was little room 
for cargo. The length of the voyage — about two months 
— made it hard to keep food properly in the crowded and 
poorly equipped little ships ; so for one reason or another 
it was almost certain that the first colonists would have to 
get their food as best they could from the forests and the 
streams. That was one reason why the Indians were such 
a danger. Even when they were friendly the work of 
cutting down the forests and then clearing and planting the 
land was difficult enough ; but when they were hostile the 
settlers had to divide into parties. One party did the work, 
while the other, with their guns in their hands, stood guard, 
watching for the appearance of the Indians. 

94 



OLD TIMES IN THE COLONIES 



95 




rv.v 



89. Log Houses of the First Colonists; how Brick came 
from England. The first colonial houses were built of logs 
hewn by axes into square timbers. Sometimes the timbers 
were not even squared, but were merely notched at the ends 
so that they would fit together ; the chinks between the logs 
were filled with clay. 

These first houses had 
few rooms, of which the 
kitchen, as a rule, was 
the most important ; in 
fact, it was the general 
living room for the 
whole family. Its fire- 
place, built of rough 
stone, was often im- 
mense. Before the fire- 
place on winter nights 
the family gathered, 
while the mother turned 
her spinning wheel, the father cleaned his gun or mended his 
implements, and the children were amused by story-telling. 

Later many houses were made of brick, and there were a 
few, even in the early times, whose brick had been brought 
from England as '^ ballast," loaded in the bottom part of a 
ship to keep it steady in the high seas. It is astonishing 
how soon the cabins of the first settlers were replaced by 
fine mansions (see Chapter VTII). 

90. Earliest Colonial Agriculture; Value of River Lands; 
Trading for Food; Shipbuilding; Mines. The crops raised by 
the early colonists have been mentioned — tobacco in Vir- 
ginia ; rice in Carolina ; corn almost everywhere. All the 
settlements lay along the rivers. From the very beginning, 
rivers decided what the colonists would do; that is to say, 
large rivers are usually bordered by wide strips of what is 
called ^'bottom" — flat land easily cultivated. The Southern 



A COLONIAL FARMHOUSE IN NEW 
ENGLAND 



96 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



rivers without exception had such borders ; there, natu- 
rally, agriculture was easy. As soon as the forests were 
cleared away fields and pastures took their place, and crops 
and cattle soon gave the settlers plenty to live upon. 

But in New England conditions were different. The rivers 
were generally small, the banks frequently rocky, and there 

was little bottom land. 
Agriculture was difficult, 
and the settlers found it 
necessary to send away 
to the richer lands farther 
south for no small part 
of their food. In order to 
get that food they had to 
have something to give in 
exchange for it ; therefore 
they became fishers and 
manufacturers. The fish 
of the Northern seas and 
the articles manufactured 
by the Northern men were 
gladly accepted by the 
Southerners in exchange for corn, tobacco, meat, rice, tur- 
pentine, and timber from their great fields and forests. 

In order to carry these products back and forth ships were 
needed. To meet this demand the New Englanders began to 
build ships and to sail them. Soon they were among the most 
expert shipbuilders and most skillful sailors in the world. 

Thus the people in the Northern and the people in the 
Southern colonies came gradually to have widely different 
occupations. In the middle colonies the occupations of 
both the other groups of colonies — agriculture and manu- 
facturing — were followed successfully. Another occupation 
began in these middle colonies. This was mining. Our first 
important mines were discovered in the middle colonies, 




FIRST TOWN HOUSE IN BOSTON, 165S 
A reconstruction from an old print 



U'fx 




OLD TIMES IN THE COLONIES 97 

many of them in Pennsylvania. Throughout the colonial 
time all the coal and iron mined in our country came from 
that region. A great deal of it comes from that region still. 
9L How the Climate affected the Way of Living; Country 
Life in the South ; Town Life in the North. The climate of 
the various colonies had an effect on the way of living. In 
the South the mild ) , 
weather which prevails 
during most of the year 
made it easy for settlers 

to communicate with ^4 '^^w^W^ ^IV^'?.) ' 

each other at any time. 
The broad, slow rivers 
never froze, and it was 
always easy by means 
of boats to pass from 

, . , . A GREAT CANOE ON A SOUTHERN RIVER 

plantation to plantation. 

Therefore, people lived mainly in the country and did not 
build many towns. Canoes were used for short trips. For 
longer journeys big barges were used, rowed by eight or 
more black slaves. We have seen already that almost 
everywhere in the South ships could sail up the rivers and 
load or unload at the plantation wharves (section 30). 

In the North, on the other hand, in the days before good 
roads, the severe weather made it hard for people to com- 
municate during a large part of the year. In winter heavy 
snow lay deep upon the earth. This was a new experience for 
most of the colonists because in England there is little 
snow. The Englishmen in the Northern colonies would 
hardly have known what to do in winter if the Indians had 
not taught them the use of snowshoes. But even with snow- 
shoes the Northern settler who tried to live alone through 
the long Northern winter found life very dreary. He thought 
often of the mild, open winter of ^'Merrie England" and of 
the cheerful life at home — so different from the lonely life of 



98 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

one family in a solitary American farmhouse surrounded by 
deep snow over which it was difficult to pass. He tried to 
better things by building his home near others and helping 
to form towns. 

92. Slavery. In the main the first settlers were neither rich 
nor poor. Of course there were exceptions. From the begin- 
ning there were in every colony a few rich men. There 




HOUSE IN PHILADELPHIA BUILT BY WILLIAM PENN 



were also, at the other extreme, the indentured servants 
( section 31). And in every colony negro slaves were intro- 
duced soon after the first shipload was brought to Virginia 
(section 31 ). They were used almost altogether on the farms 
or as house servants of the rich. Slaves of the latter sort were 
found everywhere in small numbers. The farm slaves were 
found only where there were large agricultural estates. In 
New York the patroons were great holders of slaves. In most 
of the New England States, where farms were small, there 
were few slaves, though in Rhode Island, where the farms 
were larger, slaves were numerous. In all the Southern col- 
onies agricultural labor was done chiefly by slaves. The 
demand for slaves led to a new business, the ''slave trade," 
which consisted of raids along the coast of Africa and the 



Old times in the colonies 



99 



bringing over of captured negroes for sale in America. Slave- 
trading was one of the earliest occupations of the New 
England seamen. 

93. Pirates: Blackbeard and Captain Kidd. Among the 
other hardships of the colonists was the risk of losing all 
their property, or even their 
lives, from the raids of pirates. 
The government in London 
was so busy with home affairs 
that it had little time to at- 
tend to America and few ships 
and soldiers to spare for 
America's defense. Thus the 
pirates got their opportunity 
to do mischief on the Ameri- 
can coast. We have seen how 
they figured in the history of 
South Carolina (section 83). 
In Virginia they were almost 
as great a peril. Perhaps the 
worst of them was a wretch 
who called himself Black- 
beard. He is said to have had 
no less than thirteen wives 
and to have murdered at least three with his own hands. 
The news that Blackbeard's ship had been seen along the 
coast was enough to spread terror in Virginia. But at last 
a bold sea captain ran him down and cut off his head. 

The most famous pirate that ever sailed was Captain 
Kidd. He was once a respectable seaman whom the gov- 
ernor of New York employed to make war on the enemies 
of England. But Kidd took the ship that was given to him 
and turned pirate. He did so many daring deeds that his 
fame became world-wide. If one believed half the stories 
told of him, one would think that he and his men always 




BLACKBEARD 



100 SCHOOL HIS'IORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




PINE-TREE SHILLING OF MASSAt H I SKTTS 



had a shipload of stolen gold. Up and down the Atlantic 
coast stories are told of great masses of treasure buried by 
Captain Kidd somewhere in the neighborhood — nobody 
knows just where— on a dark night two hundred years ago. 
Boys hunt in the woods or dig along the shore, hoping to 

find a buried chest 
fullof'pirategold." 
At last Kidd was 
caught and hanged. 
94. Early Indian 
Wars. In most cases 
the friendship of the 
Indians and the 
whites did not last 
long. The whites came over so fast and their settlements 
pushed so far up along the rivers that the Indians began 
to regret having permitted the strangers to land. 

Our first Indian war, called the Great Massacre, broke 
out in Virginia ( 1622 ). The leader of the Indians, Opechan- 
canough, was a brother of Powhatan, recently dead, to whose 
power the brother had succeeded. He planned to destroy 
the English through treachery. On the evening of the last 
day of March, at many Virginia farms, passing Indians 
begged to be given shelter for the night. At sunrise next 
morning these Indian visitors began the massacre by murder- 
ing their hosts. This sickening slaughter was followed by 
much desperate fighting. But the whites were even then the 
more powerful race ; the Indians were beaten back and 
much of their land was added to the territory of the whites. 

Our second Indian war resulted from the advance of the 
English into the Connecticut valley. The Pequot Indians 
determined to drive them back. Thereupon the English 
made an alliance with the friendly Narragansett Indians. 
The war which followed was short but furious. So great was 
the danger from the Indians that Massachusetts sent aid to 




WEIGHING A BRIDE IN COLONIAL MONEY 

Jehn Hull, Treasurer of Massachusetts, gave his daughter as a wedding 
present her weight in the silver shillings of the colony 



OLD TIMES IN THE COLONIES 



101 



Connecticut. A Pequot stronghold on the site of Stonington 
was taken by storm. The defenders were massacred (1637), 
and the Pequots made no further resistance. 

95. King Philip's War. Many wars followed, and the In- 
dians produced several great leaders who strove desperately 
to drive our forefathers into the sea. The first of these was a 




A NIGHT EXPEDITION AGAINST THE INDIANS 



son of the kindly Massasoit. He had been baptized ; ^ in 
English he has always been known by his baptismal name, 
and called King Philip. 

Philip made up his mind to recover for his people all their 
old hunting grounds along the coast. He laid his plans in 
secret and persuaded many Indians to take part. Suddenly, 
on a summer day, without warning, he attacked the town of 
Swansea on the frontier of Plymouth colony (1675). Thus 
began King Philip's War, in which both sides suffered 

^Many good men labored long and sincerely to convert the Indians to 
Christianity. We have heard of the work of Wesley in Georgia (section 87) 
and shall hear later of Catholic missionaries (section 103). Long before 
Wesley, John Eliot of Massachusetts earned the title "Apostle to the Indians." 
His converts were called Praying Indians. Eliot published a translation of the 
Scriptures in an Indian language (1635). During King Philip's War many 
of the Praying Indians fought on the side of the whites. 



I02 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



frightful loss. It is estimated that one tenth of all the men of 
New England were either killed or captured by the Indians. 
When captured they were often burned alive. In retalia- 
tion captured Indians were sent to the West Indies and sold 
as slaves. A dozen New England towns were burned to the 
ground. But at length the Indians were beaten, and Philip 

was killed. Several In- 
dian tribes were practi- 
cally wiped out. This 
horrible war did much 
to fix in the minds of the 
whites a bitter hatred 
and distrust of the In- 
dians. Perhaps the In- 
dians were affected the 
same way. At any rate, 
all the Indian wars which 
followed showed the same 
appalling fury on both 
sides that was shown in 
King Philip's War. 

96. Nathaniel Bacon. 
When the war was at its 
height in New England 
the Indians made another bloody raid into Virginia (1676). 
There was at that time in Virginia a fearless and able man, 
Nathaniel Bacon. On his own responsibility Bacon raised 
an army of volunteers, marched against the Indians, and in 
a fierce encounter broke their strength. 

Following Bacon's victory the governor of Virginia, Sir 
William Berkeley, instead of being grateful to Bacon for 
defending the colony, became jealous. It is thought that he 
wanted to trade with the Indians and did not want any real 
harm done to them. Berkeley proclaimed Bacon a traitor 
because he had raised his army without asking the governor's 




OLD BRICK CHURCH NEAR SMITHFIELD, 
VIRGINIA, ERECTED IN 1632 



OLD TIMES IN THE COLONIES 



103 



consent. This treatment, for he knew that he had served his 
country well, put Bacon in a passion. He called on the men 
he had led against the Indians to come together again and 
drive the governor out of office. Many of them responded. 
And then broke out a civil war known as Bacon's Rebellion. 
For a time Bacon was successful. He drove the governor 
out of Jamestown and burned the city. But Bacon died 
soon after. Then Governor Berkeley got the upper hand 



72^ 

,":* 



' ,^f^^if(^ )L£Bsiiti. f\ % '& 




THE PALACE OF THE ROYAL GOVERNOR AT NEW BERNE, 
NORTH CAROLINA 



and took a grim revenge upon the men who had fought for 
Bacon. In cold blood he ordered twenty-three to be hanged. 

97. Culpeper's Rebellion. Many followers of Bacon, in 
order to escape being hanged by Berkeley, fled to distant 
places where the vindictive governor could not reach them. 
Some escaped into North Carolina and joined the settlements 
upon Albemarle Sound (section 81). These men seem 
to have aroused the spirit of liberty wherever they went. 
When the Proprietaries of Carolina made harsh laws that 
bore hard on the people of Albemarle, these refugees took 
part in an uprising against them which is called Culpeper's 
Rebellion because of the prominence in it of John Culpeper. 
The Proprietaries were forced to give way, and the liberties 
of Albemarle were made secure. 

98. Ideas of Government. It was the general belief of the 
colonists that in crossing the sea they had not given up any 



104 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of the rights of Englishmen. In various charters granted 
by the kings it was expressly stated that the colonists were 
to retain these rights. At this time the English Parliament 
was beginning to take a great part in political affairs and was 
asserting on behalf of the English nation many rights which 
the king would have liked to deny but which could no longer 
be disregarded. Charles I, to be sure, in those acts of his 
which produced the English Civil War (section 40), had tried 
to take away the recently acquired rights of his Parliament, 
but had failed to do so. When his son was restored to the 
throne of England (section 70) no one dreamed that any later 
king would ever repeat the course of the obstinate Charles I. 
Both the British and the American English in the time of 
Charles II felt secure in the political rights of Englishmen. 
As these rights for which our fathers' fathers struggled 
in the seventeenth century, and which were promised us in 
the old royal charters, are the very foundation of all Ameri- 
can liberty, nothing in our history is of more consequence. 
Five of chief importance were (i) the right to have an 
elected legislature which should represent the people as a 
whole, like the House of Burgesses in Virginia, or the House 
of Representatives in Massachusetts,' or the House of As- 
sembly in New York, or the General Assembly in Penn- 
sylvania, or the Commons House of Assembly in South 
Carolina ; - ( 2 ) the right to control taxation, that is, the right 
to have the representative assembly determine what taxes 
should be laid and also to spend, as it thought best, the 
money which was thus raised; (3) the right to trial by jury — 
which means that if anyone was accused of a crime he had the 
right to demand that twelve men not connected in any way 

^The General Court of Massachusetts (section 46, note) was now com- 
posed of two bodies of men as are our legislatures today; the House of 
Representatives was elected directly by the people, while the "upper house," 
called the Council, was elected by the representatives of the people. 

-In spite of their variety of names the assemblies were all very much 
alike and exercised about the same power. 



OLD TIMES IN THE COLONIES 105 

with the government should be called in to form the jury 
that was to decide his guilt ; (4) the right to many privileges 
secured to English subjects by the laws of England which 
protected Englishmen from the arbitrary exercise of the 
power of the king^; (5) after 1689 the colonists were en- 
titled to all the benefits of the famous English law, the Act 
of Toleration (passed in 1689), which gave freedom of wor- 
ship to all Protestants and, furthermore, prevented the colo- 
nial governments from restricting the holding of public office 
to the members of their own church, as had been done by the 
early Puritans in Massachusetts (section 50). 

99. New England Confederation. Few things which our 
fathers did in the seventeenth century are more interesting 
to their descendants than the first attempt to form an Amer- 
ican federal union ; that is to say, a great state made up of 
a number of smaller states all of which act as one in certain 
ways, while in other ways each manages its own affairs. 
Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, 
which was still a separate colony (section 55), united in the 
New England Confederation. It was formed at the opening 
of the Civil War in England ( 1 643 ) and was designed partly 
to unite the American Puritans for protection against the 
king, partly to protect the Northern colonies against the 
Dutch, who were aiming to get possession of the Connecticut 
valley. The main purpose of the Confederation was to secure 
joint action by its members in all matters of defense. It was 
not very successful. There were sharp quarrels as to whether 

^In most countries in the seventeenth century the king cuuld arbitrarily 
disregard the law and interfere in the affairs of his subjects in almost any way 
he saw fit — forbid them to go on with their business, or force them to give 
up their property without payment, or put them in prison without telling 
them why. The English king could do only what the law authorized him to 
do. However, even in England it was not yet permitted to criticize the king 
or his officers freely. The Americans established the right to do so. When 
Peter Zenger, editor of the Weekly Journal of New York, was tried for libel 
because he had told the truth about an unscrupulous governor of the colony, 
the jur>' decided that he was not guilty (1734). 



io6 SCHOOL HISTORY Of THE UNITED STATES 

proposed measures which pleased some members were just 
to all. Once, when all the members except Massachusetts 
wanted to make war on the Indians, IMassachusetts stub- 
bornly refused to contribute any soldiers. The council of 
the Confederation was unable to exert authority, and at last 
the Confederation broke up (1684). 

SUMMARY 

The early colonists encountered many hardships. Their first 
houses were rude cabins. As all settlements were along rivers, 
the character of the river valley determined their mode of life. 
The Southerners with rich river land became agriculturists ; the 
Northerners had little such land and therefore many of them 
became fishers and manufacturers. They exchanged their products, 
and thus commerce began in the colonies. Climate also affected 
their lives because the mild weather of the South permitted easy 
communication by water, while the severe Northern winter made 
communication difficult. The Southerners lived chiefly on planta- 
tions, while the Northerners drew together in towns. All the 
colonists were in constant danger from pirates. The Indians also 
became their enemies and sought to drive them back into the sea. 
Three terrible Indian wars were the Great Massacre, the Pequot 
War, and King Philip's War. During King Philip's War the 
Indians raided Virginia settlements and were defeated by Nathaniel 
Bacon. The governor of Virginia, jealous of Bacon, treated him 
harshly and provoked a little civil war in Virginia. Bacon's 
Rebellion was put down, and many of his followers fled to North 
Carolina, where they took part in a successful rising against the 
rule of the Proprietaries. All the colonists believed that in leaving 
England they had not given up any of their precious political 
rights, some of which the king had but recently been compelled 
to acknowledge. Such rights had made England a free country 
while most others were still despotic. These seventeenth-century 
colonists made the first American attempt at a federal union, 
known as the New England Confederation. 



OLD TIMES IN THE COLONIES 107 

AIDS TO STUDV 

For the Teacher : Andrews, *Colonial Period (9-89), Colonial Self- 
Gove?'n7nent (202-231), * Colonial Folkways \ Bassett, United States, 
89-93 ; *Becker, Beginnings of the American People ; Bruce, Institu- 
tional History of Virginia (I, 487-571 ; II, 3-122, 229-254), Economic 
History of Virginia (I, chap, xviii ; II, chaps, x, xi); *Channing, United 
States, II; Com an, Industrial History of the United States, chap, ii ; 
Fiske, Beginnings of New England (chap, vi). Old Virgitiia and her 
Neighbors; Hart, Contemporaries, I, Nos. 86, 91, 92, 123, 127, 129, 
133, 152, 162; *McCka'D\, South Carolina under Proprietaiy Govern- 
ment, 39-234; *OsGOOD, Afnerican Colonies (I, 73-79, 84-91, 98-103, 
141-199, 30i-333> 392-427, 496-526; II, 16-438; III, 258-265, 368-376), 
History of Industry (chap, xv) ; Payne, European Colonies, chap, iv ; 
Tyler, England in America, 149-152. 

For the Pupil : Andrews, Ten Boys, 191-207 ; Coffin, Old Times iti 
the Colonics; Eggleston, Our First Century, 21-41, 61-82; Hart, 
Colonial Children, 98-104, 149-153, 165-170; Irving, Knickerbocker'' s 
Histofy of New York ; Stone and Fickett, Everyday Life in the 
Colonies. See also references under Chapter III. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

[i. Describe a voyage to the colonies in early times (see Coman, 
Industrial History of the United States, chap, ii ; Egerton, Origin and 
Growth of the English Colonies, chap, iv).] 2. Why did the early 
colonists find it hard to get food ? 3. What crops were raised by the 
early colonists, and where ? 4. Why did the Southerners develop agri- 
culture ? 5. Why did the Northerners become fishers and manu- 
facturers ? What industries sprang up in New England ? Why ? 6. How 
did trade begin in the colonies ? 7. How did climate encourage the 
Southerners to live in the country ? 8. How did climate induce the 
Northerners to live very largely in towns ? 9. What danger threatened 
the colonists along the sea ? on land ? 10. Why did the Indians 
become hostile ? 

II. How was the Great Massacre begun? 12. What Indian war 
was fought in Connecticut? 13. What were the results of King Philip's 
War? 14. Tell the story of Bacon's Rebellion. 15. What did the 
Americans consider their five chief rights? [16. State some promises 
made by the king in a charter (see Macdonald, Select Charters ; 
Andrews, Colonial Self -Government). (The teacher should define 
"charter" as a document granting rights and privileges in accordance 



io8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

v/ith which the persons receiving the grant are to regulate their Hves. 
Somewhere in a royal charter will be found a statement of the rights 
of the colonists. A good illustration is in the original charter of the 
Virginia Company. The teacher might read and explain this passage, 
then require the pupil to find a similar passage in some other charter, 
say the charter of Massachusetts.)] 

[17. Describe the operation of some one of the five chief rights at 
the present time (see Turkington, My Country). What might happen 
to us (a) without any elected legislature? {b) if the president, and not 
Congress, laid the taxes ? (c) if there were no juries ? (d) if the 
government could put us into prison without telling us why? (e) if 
Congress could require us to join a particular church?] 18. What is 
a federal union? 19. What was the first American federal union? 
20; Why was it formed? (Two answers) 21. How did Massachusetts 
obstruct its action ? 




BELIEF MAP OF THE UNITED ST.^TES 



aiaEaooaaL^raKaMraaoK':tran^^^^rra?3MMns:^p^ 




CARTIER ON THE ST. LAWRENCE 



CHAPTER V 



NEW FRANCE 



100. Historical Geography. The eastern half of the present 
United States comprises two great plains separated by a 
long, irregular wall of mountains. Along the Atlantic lies 
the coastal plain, whose rivers come down eastward from the 
Appalachian Mountains. On the west slopes of the moun- 
tains the rivers flow down through the great central plain, 
where the main stream, the Mississippi, carries their waters 
to the Gulf of Mexico. During the period between 1607 
(section 25) and 1664 (section 69) the English took posses- 
sion of most of the coastal plain, but they made no serious 
attempt to penetrate the mountains and they did not settle 
as far north as the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Meanwhile another 
people, the French, passed up the St. Lawrence River, made 
their way around the northern end of the mountain wall, 
and took possession of the central plain. 

101. Beginnings of French Colonization. The first explorer 
of the St. Lawrence (1534) was Jacques Cartier, who was so 

pleased by the view from a hill which he climbed that he 

109 



no SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



named the place Montreal, or Royal Mountain. The first 
permanent French colony in America was established by 
Samuel de Champlain at Quebec (1608). From Quebec 
Champlain and his Frenchmen set out to explore the coun- 
try south of the St. Lawrence ; in so doing he discovered 
that lovely lake which still bears his name, Lake Champlain. 










Harper tV iJrolliers 



CHAMPLAIN FIGHTING THE IROQUOIS 
From "Old Times in the Colonies," by Charles Carleton Coffin 

An appeal from the Indians around Lake Champlain led 
him to join them in an attack upon enemies of theirs. How 
was Champlain to know that these enemies were the greatest 
of all the Indian peoples? But such were the Iroquois, after- 
wards famous as the Six Nations (section 125). The French- 
men and the Lake Indians fought a battle with the Iroquois 
warriors, none of whom had ever before heard the report of 
a gun. When the French fired, the Iroquois thought they had 
witnessed something supernatural ; thereupon these men, 
who were afraid of nothing human, fled into the woods. 
The French went back to Canada well satisfied with having 



NEW FRANCE 



III 



made friends of the neighboring Indians. They did not sus- 
pect that by incurring the enmity of the Iroquois they had 
made a fatal mistake. 

102. The Iroquois form a Defense for the English. The 
French hoped to break up the English colonies. They in- 
tended to push down from Canada along Lake Champlain 
to the Hudson and down the Hudson to the sea ; thus they 
hoped to cut the colonies in two and gradually conquer each 




MAP SHOWING EARLY FRENCH EXPLORATION 

section, but when they tried to begin their advance south- 
ward the Iroquois blocked their path. The English were 
quick to see how much the friendship of the Iroquois meant. 
From the English the Iroquois received guns and powder, 
which they quickly learned how to use. There were English 
soldiers ready to help them in their fights with the French. 
As the Iroquois never forgave the French, they decided at last 
to become subjects of England. In a treaty made at Albany 
the Iroquois were received into the British Empire (1684). 
103. The French take Possession of the Northwest; the 
Jesuit Missionaries. The French made their way along the 
St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and far up into the North- 
west. Here and there they built a fort which became a 
center for Indian trading. Among the forts over which flew 
the French flag was one that has grown into the city of 
Detroit ; another was at Green Bay in Wisconsin ; another 
was at Mackinaw ; there were many more. 



112 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The French have always known how to get on well with 
savage peoples. They won the affection of the Indians, — 
except the unforgiving Iroquois, — and the Indians swore 
faithfulness to the distant king at Paris. This was due 
very largely to the kindness, joined with bravery, of the 
Jesuit missionaries sent out from France to convert the 
Indians— the ''Black Gowns," as the Indians called them. 
No missionaries have ever endured greater suffering with 
more noble courage. Especially terrible were the sufferings 
inflicted on them by the Iroquois, whom they tried in vain 
to Christianize. One of these heroes. Father Isaac Jogues, 
after returning from a missionary journey wrote an account 
of his torture by the Iroquois. Undismayed by their cruelty 
he went back to the Iroquois country and was there brutally 
put to death. 

104. Joliet and Marquette explore the Mississippi. A young 
fur trader named Joliet, together with a noted Jesuit priest. 
Father Marquette, made the most important of the French 
discoveries in America. The Indians had told him of a 
great river under the setting sun which they called Missis- 
sippi, or ''Father of Waters." The explorers thought that 
this river might flow west into the Pacific and thus open for 
the French an easy road to Asia. To find out, they left 
Green Bay, Wisconsin, with five Indians and went up the 
Fox River to its head in birch-bark canoes ; thence they 
carried the canoes across a piece of high land and found 
the headwaters of the Wisconsin River. Launching the 
canoes again, they paddled down the Wisconsin until it 
joined an immense river some two miles in width. They had 
found the Mississippi (1674). Down this enormous stream 
they floated, day after day and week after week, until they 
were convinced that its course was certainly southward. 
Therefore it could not lead to Asia ; instead, it must lead 
to the regions controlled by the king of Spain. When they 
got to the mouth of the Arkansas River they decided that it 



NEW FRANCE 



113 



would not be safe to go any farther at present. They were 
eager to report their discovery to the king of France, and 
began to be afraid of meeting Spaniards, who perhaps would 
kill them and pretend to have explored the upper Mississippi 
themselves. There- 
fore they reluctantly 
turned back toward 
Canada, but on their 
way home they took 
a fresh course and 
explored the Illinois 
River. In going from 
its headwaters to 
Lake Michigan they 
passed over the spot 
where Chicago now 
stands. 

105. La Salle com- 
pletes the Discovery 
of the Mississippi; he 
founds Louisiana. The 
news brought back to 
Canada by Marquette 
inspired yet another 
famous French ex- 
plorer, Robert de la 
Salle. Following very nearly Marquette's course on his 
return journey, La Salle also passed over the site of Chicago 
or near it. His voyage down the Mississippi began in mid- 
winter. At first the brave Frenchmen had to steer their frail 
boats among masses of floating ice; nevertheless they kept 
resolutely on. So long and slow was the voyage that spring 
came before its end. At last, on a bright April day, they 
came out from the mouth of the river upon the waters of 
the Gulf of Mexico (1682). La Salle landed and set up a 







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LA SALLE AT THE MOUTH OF THE 
MISSISSIPPI 



114 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



cross and a post ; on the post his men carved the name of the 
king of France — Louis XIV — and the French coat of arms. 
La Salle drew his sword and said, '' I take possession of all 
this land in the name of the king of France." He named 
the country Louisiana. 

106. New France. Soon after his great journey La Salle 
died. His work was carried on by another Frenchman, named 

Bienville, whom King 
Louis appointed governor 
of Louisiana and in whose 
time were founded Mo- 
bile (1702) and New 
Orleans (1718). 

Other towns were 
founded along the ]\Iissis- 
sippi and its tributaries. 
Before long there was a 
chain of forts each of 
which formed a conven- 
ient stopping place on the 
long journey from the 
Great Lakes to the Gulf. 
The king of France declared that the whole Mississippi 
Valley, as well as Canada, now belonged to him. To all that 
vast domain was given the name '' New France." 

This French colonial empire was widely different from 
the colonies of England. It contained very few actual set- 
tlers. Except along the St. Lawrence there were hardly any 
Frenchmen who cleared the land and became farmers. The 
only real towns were at the two extremities, the lower St. 
Lawrence and the lower Mississippi, where French ships came 
to anchor. Almost all New France remained a wilderness. 
The few Frenchmen in it were soldiers or traders or priests, 
stationed at the various forts scattered along the rivers or 
the Indian trails. There was scarcely any business except 




BUILDING OF THE GRIFFOX, THE FIRST 
SHIP THAT SAILED THE GREAT LAKES 

From Hennepin's " Decouverte " 



NEW FRANCE 



IIS 



fur-trading, and this was carried on at the forts. What the 
French really accomplished was merely to extend their rule 




over a number of Indian tribes and to station among them 
handfuls of French soldiers who conducted the fur trade. 
The king of France had become the greatest Indian ruler 
in the world. 



ii6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

At that time the French people had no voice in determin- 
ing how they should be governed. A hundred years later, 
inspired largely by the examples of England and America, 
they rose against their king and established the glorious 
French republic. But when Louis XIV ruled France he gave 
no heed to either the wishes or the interests of the mass of 
the people. He denied that they had any rights. He alone 
made the laws, laid the taxes, and imprisoned his subjects or 
set them free at his pleasure. As he ruled old France, so he 
intended to rule New France. He intended also to conquer 
the English colonies, abolish their free institutions, and add 
their territory to his dominions. How he tried to do this 
and why he failed we shall now see. 

SUMMARY 

In the seventeenth century the English settled the coastal plain 
which lies between the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic. 
Meanwhile the French entered the St. Lawrence valley, turned the 
north end of the mountains, and came down the Mississippi to 
the Gulf of Mexico. But their colonial empire, called New France, 
differed from the English colonies in having few actual settlers. 
It remained almost altogether a wilderness, having hardly any 
industry but the fur trade. The king of France was then a 
despotic ruler by whom the French people were held in complete 
subjection. No free institutions such as those of the English 
colonies were tolerated in New France. The French king aimed 
to conquer those colonies and extend over them his despotic sway. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : Bassett, United States, 35-67, 1 1 i-i 1 5 ; Brioham, 
Geographic Influences in American History, chap, i ; Chanmn(;, ignited 
States, II, chaps, v-vi ; Fiske, Discovery of America, chap, xii ; Hart, 
Contemporaries, I, chap, v ; Hitchcock, Louisiana Purchase, chaps, i, ii ; 
King, New Orleans; *Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New M^orld, 
The fesuits in North America, and La Salle and the Discovery of the 
Mississippi \ Thwaites, France in America, chaps, i-iv, 



NEW FRANCE 



117 



For the Pupil : Archer, Stories of Exploration and Discovery, 
chap, xviii; Baldwin, Discovery of the Old Northwest •, Catherwood, 
Heroes of the Middle West:, Channing and Lansing, Story of the Great 
Lakes, chaps, iii, vi, xii ; Drake, The Making of the Great West, 85-1 23 ; 
Edgar (Ed., condensing Parkman), The Struggle for a Continent, 83- 
124, 130-135, 149-156, 186-222; }o\{.^^o^, French Pathfitiders in North 
America, chaps, iv, viii-xiv, xxx-xxxii ; Southworth, Builders of 
America, chaps, xv-xviii, xxii; Tappan, Letters from Colonial Childre?i. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I, What are the main features of the geography of the eastern half 
of the United States ? 2. How did the French enter America ? 3. How 
did Champlain make enemies of the Iroquois ? [4. What do you think 
might have happened if Champlain had made friends of the Iroquois ? 
(The teacher here can bring out what is meant by a "buffer" state. 
The Iroquois, because of their hatred of the French, formed a buffer 
state, protecting the Enghsh colonies on the north. This buffer state 
formed a dam, so to speak, that forced the stream of French settle-, 
ment to flow westward instead of southward.)] 

5. How was the Northwest explored? 6. How did France acquire 
the Mississippi Valley? 7. What regions composed New France? 
[8. Draw a map showing the portions of North America occupied by 
Spain, England, and France about 1730. Indicate what lands were 
claimed by the English but not occupied. Show the chain of French 
forts (see section 106; also maps on pages iii, 115).] 9. How did New 
France differ from the English colonies ? (Three answers) 




MARQUETTE AND JOLIET ON THE MISSISSIPPI 



3K?0!aKL»::2!aL'ca.teg^IKZE3^1g;raaOSaS^^ 




.*• 










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EiKasisai 



GOVERNOR DINWIDDIE GIVING ORDERS TO GEORGE WASHINGTON 



CHAPTER \T 



THE WARS FOR EXISTENCE 



107. James II; the Great Province. In 1685 the Duke of 
York became king of England as James II. He admired and 
envied Louis XIV^ and wished to rule us as Louis ruled the 
French. With that end in viev^ he would have liked to 
abolish the separate colonial governments and merge all the 
colonies together in one great province, but he hesitated 
about dispossessing the great lords proprietors of Maryland, 
Carolina, and Pennsylvania. He decided to begin by com- 
bining in one province all the middle and Northern colonies 
from Maine to New Jersey. He thought himself strong 
enough to put down the opposition which his course would 
arouse. His attitude was expressed by one of his officers, 
who told the people of Massachusetts that the king's sub- 
jects in New England did not differ much from slaves and 
that the only difference was that they were not bought and 
sold. In this spirit James appointed Sir Edmund Andros 
governor of all New England as well as of New York and 

New Jersey. He was ordered to combine all these colonies 

118 



THE WARS FOR EXISTENCE 



119 







PhiladelphiaNC '/ "^ y ^^c^, 



^ ^ 



in the ''Dominion of New England" and to destroy their 
elected assemblies through which they governed themselves. 

108. The American Opposition to James II; the Connecti- 
cut Charter. But James and Andros did not understand the 
American spirit. Everywhere our fathers refused to obey 
the arbitrary king and 
his domineering governor. 
What happened at Hart- 
ford has never been 
forgotten. Andros deter- 
mined to get the Connect- 
icut charter (section 55) 
into his possession. This 
precious document was 
kept with utmost care at 
Hartford. Andros went 
to Hartford with his sol- 
diers to obtain it. Accord- 
ing to the story that has 
come down to us he met 
the Connecticut officials 
in a conference by candle- 
light, and though they made an eloquent argument in de- 
fense of their liberties, he refused to consider it. The offi- 
cials were powerless. Reluctantly they ordered the charter 
brought in, and it was laid on a table before the governor. 
Then, suddenly, all the candles were blown out. When they 
were lighted again the charter had disappeared. Andros was 
very angry, but he never discovered what became of the char- 
ter when the candles were out. It was safely hidden in a big 
hollow oak which was called the Charter Oak ever after. 

109. The Whole Empire rebels against James II ; the Revo- 
lution of 1688. In England plans were laid to get rid of the 
tyrannical king. He had a daughter, the Princess Mary, 
who was married to the Prince of Orange, a great noble of 




ANDROS S DOMINION OF NEW ENGLAND 



120 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Holland and president of the Dutch Republic. Several noted 
Englishmen signed a letter to the Prince of Orange asking 
him to come to England and help them drive out King James. 
Naturally Princess Mary hated to take part in a movement 
to depose her father, but at last she gave her consent. The 
prince, with a great fleet and army, sailed for England. 
James fled to France, and William and Mary were crowned 
king and queen of England. 

This driving out of James II was known as the Revolu- 
tion of 1688 — the year in which it occurred. The Americans 
played their part in it. They rose against the royal officers 
and compelled them to lay down their power. In some places 
they did not succeed without a struggle. The sharpest fight 
was in New York, where the popular party was led by Jacob 
Leisler. They won the day and proclaimed William and 
Mary king and queen. The new sovereigns permitted the 
New Yorkers again to have an elected assembly (section 73). 

110. The Overthrow of Andros. Andros was at Boston 
when the revolution began. The Prince of Orange had 
issued a declaration calling upon all officials who had been 
turned out of office by King James to resume their offices. 
John Winslow brought the declaration to Boston, and Andros 
threw him into prison, but it was too late to stop the revolu- 
tion. Presently Boston was filled with armed men, the royal 
garrison was forced to surrender, and now it was An- 
dros's turn to go to prison. The men who had been put out 
of office to make way for his arbitrary rule were restored, 
and Andros himself was packed off to England for trial. In 
time the generous new king, William III, pardoned him. 
The colony was made a royal province to which Plymouth 
was annexed. Freedom of worship was extended to all 
Protestants. 

111. James II appeals to the King of France; the French 
attack the English. When his subjects drove him out 
James II fled to France. He appealed to Louis XIV on 



THE WARS FOR EXISTENCE 



121 



the ground that all kings should stand together and help each 
other against their subjects. Louis responded to his appeal. 
The exiled James was received in France as an honored 
guest, a palace was placed at his disposal, and the French 
army prepared for war (1689). 

112. The French attack Schenectady. The war which fol- 
lowed was the opening of a long struggle between the English 




THE RAID ON DEERFIELD 



people and the Bourbon dynasty — that family of French 
kings of which Louis XIV was the most famous member. 
In America the first event of importance was typical of 
the whole series of deadly conflicts. It took place at the 
village of Schenectady near Albany. One night in the midst 
of winter (1690) a party of French and Indians came softly 
through the surrounding forest and across the snow. Stealth- 
ily they drew near the village. The inhabitants were all 
asleep. Two big snow men which had been built in sport at 
the entrance to the village were its only guardians. Sud- 
denly, with a wild yell, the savages rushed into the village 
Street. There followed a desperate fight. The people in 



122 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

each house defended themselves as best they could, but with- 
out success. Almost all were either killed or car^-ied off as 
prisoners to Canada. Only a handful escaped across the 
snow to Albany. 

113. The Double Danger of the Americans (French on the 
North, Spaniards on the South) ; Deerfield; Charleston. After 
the death of Louis XIV the struggle was carried on by later 




THE ATTACK ON CHARLESTON 



kings of his family who allied themselves with Spain. There- 
fore the Americans were subject to attack from both sides — 
from the north the Bourbon armies with their Indian allies 
carried fire and sword into the English dominions from 
eastern Maine to western New York ; on the south Spanish 
ships swept the coasts of Georgia and Carolina, while Indians 
under Spanish direction desolated many settlements. 

Two events which occurred about the same time show 
how real was the double danger — on the north a brutal 
raid from Canada ended in the burning of Deerfield (1704) ; 
on the south a Spanish fleet besieged Charleston, but was 
driven off after a stubborn defense of the city ( 1706). 

114. How the Wars brought the Colonists together. Another 
main feature of these wars was their effect in bringing the 



THE WARS FOR EXISTENCE 123 

colonists together and in causing them to rely on each other 
for aid/ Then, too, the wars caused them to go forth out- 
side the English boundaries and act as one people against 
foreigners. At one time the men of New York and New 
England combined to invade Canada (1690). The invasion 
was not a military success, but it helped to make all the 
Northern colonies better friends than they had been before. 
At another time the Southerners invaded Spanish Florida 
and just missed taking St. Augustine (1702). 

115. The Indian Danger in the South. In all these wars 
Indians played a great part. In the North the friendship of 
the Iroquois was of priceless value to the Americans ; in 
the South, on the contrary, we had no Indian allies of any- 
thing like the power of the Iroquois. The most threatening 
Southern tribe was the Tuscaroras, with whom we fought a 
desperate war in the midst of the struggle with France and 
Spain. The Tuscarora War began with a downpour of 
Indians upon the frontier settlements. Both the Carolinas 
and Virginia instantly combined to protect the frontier. The 
chief battle was won by an army from South Carolina com- 
manded by John Barnwell (1712), who routed the Indians 
near New Berne in North Carolina. The war ended in the 
complete defeat of the Indians." 

116. The Spanish Attack on the South; American Victory 
at Frederica. Another great event which took place in the 
South was the attempt of Spain to invade Georgia from the 
sea. An immense Spanish fleet carrying an army of five 
thousand men laid siege to Frederica in Georgia (1742). 
Oglethorpe (section 84), who took command of the Ameri- 
cans, had but eight hundred soldiers. In the fierce battle of 

1 Toward the close of this period a general colonial conference was held 
(1754) at Albany to discuss military problems. Benjamin Franklin proposed 
a union of all the colonies, but neither king nor colonies approved the plan. 

2 Why the Tuscaroras attacked the whites is not certainly known. In the 
next Indian war — the Yamassee War — there can be Httle doubt that Spain 
induced the Indians to attack. 



124 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the Bloody Marsh his little army surprised the advancing 
Spaniards on the edge of a dense wood and defeated them with 
great slaughter. The terror-stricken survivors sailed away. 

117. The French Attack on the North; American Victory at 
Louisburg. In the North the New Englanders won as great 
a victory over the French. Under Colonel Pepper rell of 
Maine their army sailed to Cape Breton Island, where 
the French had built the great fortress of Louisburg, which 
was called the Gibraltar of North America. It was so called 
because Gibraltar was the strongest fortress in Europe, and 
the French thought that Louisburg was also too strong for 
anybody to take. But Pepperrell took it in 1744. The king 
was so pleased that he made Pepperrell a baronet.^ He was 
the first American to receive this honor. 

118. The Six Years' Pause before the Last French War. Up 
to this time neither side had gained much advantage. After 
sixty years of struggle and suffering (i 689-1 748) the Eng- 
lish in America were still in danger of being conquered by 
the Bourbons. Both sides now resolved to bring the matter 
to an end. During a short period of peace — only six years 
{1748-1754) — the two powers were getting ready for the 
final struggle. At this time there were two farsighted men 
among the American governors : one was the Marquis Du- 
quesne, the French governor of Canada ; the other was Robert 
Dinwiddle, the English governor of Virginia. Both saw that 
the country between Lake Erie and the Ohio River was at 
that moment the most desirable part of America.^ If the 
French could get it they would have an easy way to invade 
Virginia and cut the colonies in two. 

^The lowest rank in the British nobiHty, which consists of baronets, 
barons, viscounts, earls, marquises, dukes. 

2 Many Americans resolved to make haste and settle the Ohio valley, and 
for that purpose associations were formed. The best known was called the 
Ohio Company, in which Lawrence Washington, the older brother of George 
Washington, was a leader. The king gave the Company five hundred thou- 
sand acres of land on the west side of the Allegheny Mountains. 




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126 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Duquesne was first 
to act. He sent out an 
armed force for the 
purpose of construct- 
ing a chain of forts 
from Lake Erie to the 
headwaters of the 
Ohio. To carry a let- 
ter of protest to the 
French commander 
who was building 
the forts, Dinwiddle 
looked about for a 
brave, hardy, quick- 
witted man whom 
nothing could dismay, 
but who, even when 
dealing with enemies, 
would never forget to 
be a gentleman. The 
man he chose, though 
only twenty-one, was 
a great athlete, over 
six feet tall, a splendid 
horseman, a hunter, 
who had been in the 
Indian country and 
knew much about In- 
dian ways — George 
Washington. To this 
courageous messenger 
Dinwiddle gave a let- 
ter for the French commander. The letter stated that the 
land on which they stood (Fort Le Boeuf) belonged to 
Virginia, and demanded that the French go back to Canada. 




MAPS SHOWING THE GROWTH OF ENGLISH 
POSSESSIONS IN AMERICA 




WASHINGTON AT FORT LE BCEUF 
From a pen-etching by Sears Gallagher 



THE WARS FOR EXISTENCE 127 

Fearlessly young Washington set out on his dangerous 
journey of some five hundred miles. He performed it suc- 
cessfully and returned, bringing word to Dinwiddie that the 
Frenchmen, though they received him politely, refused to 
go back. 

119. Washington wins the Fight at Great Meadows; Fort 
Necessity. The French now advanced more rapidly. They 
drove away a party of Virginians who were fortifying the 
place where Pittsburgh now stands, and there they built a 
fort which they named Duquesne in honor of their governor. 

But Dinwiddie sent Washington with a small Virginia 
army to oppose them. The French heard of his coming 
and marched against him. Near Great Meadows in Penn- 
sylvania the two armies met (May 28, 1754). After a sharp 
fight the French retreated. 

Though victorious, Washington was in a dangerous situa- 
tion, for the French soldiers at Fort Duquesne greatly out- 
numbered his own. Soon they were besieging him in a little 
fort he had built and named Fort Necessity. Seeing that 
it would be impossible to hold the fort, Washington agreed 
to surrender on condition that he should be allowed to take 
all his men home to Virginia. The French agreed, Wash- 
ington retreated (July 4, 1754), and thus the last war 
between the Bourbons and the English for the possession of 
America had begun. Though called the Seven Years' War, 
because that was the period of the fighting in Europe, it 
lasted nine years in America. 

120. Second Expedition against Fort Duquesne; Defeat of 
Braddock. Naturally the English were eager to make up for 
the failure at Fort Necessity. A force of regular soldiers 
commanded by General Braddock was sent over from Eng- 
land. Braddock was as brave a man as ever lived, but he 
thought he knew all there was to know about waging war. 
W^hen Washington told him that he ought to use the Indian 
way of fighting he laughed. ''Over here," said Washington, 



128 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

"the Indians have taught us to hide behind rocks and trees 
and not to expose ourselves." '' British soldiers do not hide," 
said Braddock. He ordered his men to cut a road through 
the forest. They marched along it, all in their bright-red 
coats, as if they were marching along a city street. Sud- 
denly, out of the forest, on both sides, bullets began to rain 
upon them. INIany of the English were shot down, Braddock 
among the rest. Then Washington took command. He and 
his Virginians, fighting in the Indian fashion, held the enemy 
off, while the remnant of Braddock's army retreated. 

121. The French at First Successful; William Pitt. The 
French were successful almost everywhere in the early part 
of the war.^ And then, just when the outlook was most 
gloomy for England, a very great man became head of the 
government. This was William Pitt." '' I can save England," 
he said, and he kept his word. We shall hear of Pitt again, 
and see how Americans learned to love him. He began to 
earn our love by the great reforms he made in the methods 
of the army. One of his first orders was that American 
officers (who hitherto had been treated as amateur soldiers) 
should have the same rank and importance that British 
officers had. This was the end of all such things as Brad- 
dock's stubborn refusal to listen to Washington. 

122. Wolfe captures Quebec. Pitt chose his generals well, 
and many famous victories were won by them in various 

1 During this period occurred the pitiful incident of the deportation of 
the Acadians (1755). The English had conquered (1710) the province of 
Acadia, now Nova Scotia. It was still French in sympathy. The English 
feared that the population would rebel and take sides with France. Many 
of them refused to take an oath of allegiance to England. Therefore it was 
decided to be very severe with them. Troops were brought from Massa- 
chusetts; numbers of the Acadians who refused to take the oath were forced 
on board ship and were removed to distant colonies. Some of them went 
to South Carolina and Louisiana, where their descendants still live. See 
Longfellow's " Evangeline." 

-When Fort Duquesne was captured by the Americans, in 1758, it was 
renamed Fort Pitt. It is now Pittsburgh. 



THE WARS FOR EXISTENCE 



129 



parts of the world. But none of these great victories is 
more celebrated than the victory won by General Wolfe 
at Quebec. The French thought Quebec was the key to Can- 
ada. At Quebec was the best French general in America, 
the gallant Marquis de Montcalm, with a French army. 

A British fleet brought 
Wolfe's army up the St. 
Lawrence and anchored 
near the city. Mont- 
calm, however, felt sure 
that the English could 
never succeed in landing 
their army. He watched 
the fleet closely, but 
without fear. One dark 
night Wolfe put his 
army into boats, rowed 
softly past the town, 
and landed at the foot 
of an immense cliff 
overlooking Quebec. In 
the darkness, slowly, si- 
lently, the men climbed 
the face of the cliff. 
When the sun rose 

Montcalm saw the English "redcoats" drawn up in battle 
line, looking down on the city. The heart of the brave 
Frenchman sank. Wolfe had now the advantage of him, and 
he knew that if he lost Quebec there would be an end to 
New France. Quickly Montcalm formed a battle line and 
gave the word of onset, but so deadly was the English fire 
that the French line wavered. Wolfe ordered his men to 
charge, and the French gave way. Their brave commander 
fell, mortally wounded. Strangely enough Wolfe also re- 
ceived a death wound. As he lay upon the ground he heard 




CLIMBING TO THE HEIGHTS OF ABRAHAM 



130 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



a shout, ''They run; they run!" "Who run?" he asked. 

"The French," replied an officer. "Then I die content," 

said Wolfe (1759). 

123. Pontiac; France loses her American Possessions, 1763. 

This great defeat of the French was followed soon after by 

the end of the Seven 
Years' War (1763).^ An- 
other Indian war was 
fought after peace had 
been made. There was 
an Indian from jMichigan, 
named Pontiac, a friend 
of the French, who felt 
sure that if he boldly at- 
tacked the English, the 
French would come back 
and renew the fight. Led 
by Pontiac, the north- 
western Indians attacked 
Detroit (1763) and carried 
the war eastward as far 
as Pittsburgh, but the 
French did not come 
back, and Pontiac was left 
to fight the English with- 
out their aid. Naturally 

THE DEATH OF WOLFE ^^ ^"^ ^^^ ^"^^^"^ ^^^^ 

soon overcome. 

The French king lost all his splendid American empire 

except some islands in the W>st Indies, and two little islands 

(Miquelon and St. Pierre) off the coast of Newfoundland 

that were used as fishing stations. All of New France east 

^ In the last years of the war a dispute with the Cherokee Indians 
developed into another murderous conflict, the Ch^rqk?? War (i 760-1 761), 
waged on the Carolina frontier. 




THE WARS FOR EXISTENCE 131 

of the Mississippi, except New Orleans, was added to the 
British Empire. Spain was compelled to cede Florida^ to 
the English. 

124. Results of the Wars for Existence. The year 1763, 
which marked the close of the wars, is one of the greatest 
years in American history. Two things had happened than 
which no other two have done more to make the Americans 
a great and powerful nation : 

1. All danger of the overthrow of free institutions by the 
despotic Bourbon kings was gone forever. This meant that 
Americans were never again to be in serious danger of losing 
those precious rights for which their ancestors had striven 
bravely during many centuries. 

2. A great new area had been opened up for American 
settlement. From this time forward 'Hhe West" was the 
part of our country toward which men turned as to the land 
of promise where were rich possibilities not to be found in 
the old states along the Atlantic coast. A great deal of later 
history is filled with the effort to make the West bigger and 
bigger, to push its boundary farther and farther toward the 
setting sun. The fact that we have a West at all, that ours 
is not a small country crowded between the eastern moun- 
tains and the sea, is due to the thousands of brave men and 
women who laid down their lives for their country during the 
wars for existence. 

SUMMARY 

James II sent over Sir Edmund Andros to combine the north- 
eastern colonies in the "Dominion of New England" and to rule 
them despotically. James's course roused general opposition, and 
in the Revolution of 1688 he was driven from the throne, and 
his daughter Mary and her husband, William III, became queen 
and king of England. James fled to France, where Louis XIV 
promised to help him regain his throne. Louis was the most 

1 France gave Spain what was left of New France to compensate for the 
loss of Florida. Twenty years later England ceded Florida back to Spain. 



132 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

famous king of the Bourbon dynasty, noted for its bigotry and 
its despotism. During seventy years the Bourbons conducted a 
series of wars with the English, aiming chiefly at the conquest of 
the EngUsh colonies. They formed an alliance with the kings of 
Spain and attacked the colonies from both north and south. At 
last William Pitt, in the Seven Years' War, broke the Bourbon 
power and added most of New France to the British Empire. 
The colonies were thus freed from the danger of having their 
free institutions overthrown by a Bourbon despot ; also the West 
was opened to English settlement. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : *Axdrews, Colonial Self-Go7'ernme)it, chap, xvii ; 
Bassett, Utiited States, 1 1 5-1 32 ; Bixker, Beginnings of the American 
People; Channing, United States, II, chaps, vii-xix; Cross, History of 
England; Green, Short History of England, chap, ix, sections 6-9; 
Gree.N'E, Provincial America, chaps, vii-x ; Hart, Contemporaries, I, 
chaps, xviii-xx ; *Macaulav, Essays on Lord Clii'e and William Pitt; 
*Parkman, HalfCentiuy of Conflict, Montcalm and Wolfe, and Pontiac ; 
*Seeley, Expansion of England, 225-250; Thwaites, France in 
America, chaps, vi-xvii ; *Wrong, The Conquest of Neiu France (Chron- 
icles of America). 

For the Pupil: Baldwin, Conquest of the Old Northiuest, 1-149; 
Blaisi)i:ll, Story of American History, i 1 2-1 26 ; Catherwood, Heroes 
of the Middle West; Egglkstox, Life in the Eighteenth Century, 22-26, 
52-60, 61-84, 92-106; GoRDY, Stories of Early Americart Histoty, 
chap, xxii ; Hart, Colonial Children, 135-150; Parkman, Montcalm 
and Wolfe, chaps, vi, vii, xxv, x.\vii, xxviii ; Wilsox, George Wash- 
ington, chap. iii. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. What did James II want to do in America ? 2. How were the 
king's plans defeated? 3. What happened in the Revolution of 1688? 
4. Why did the Bourbon kings make war on the English ? 5. What 
happened at Schenectady ? [ 6. Why did all the early French invasions 
of the colonies take place in the Northeast ? Show how geography 
helped the English by preventing French attacks from the west. Show 
how the "buffer" state of the Iroquois prevented a French attack from 
the northwest. (The teacher should make plain the great value to the 
colonists of the mountain barrier on the west and of the closing of the 



THE WARS FOR EXISTENCE 



133 



Mohawk Valley to the northwest.)] [7. Draw a map showing what is 
meant by the "double danger of the Americans." Explain how the 
danger arose. (It is most important to make clear that these wars were 
conducted from two bases — Canada and Florida — and that until the 
final war the danger was equal North and South.)] 

8. What happened at Deerfield ? 9. What happened at Charleston ? 
10. What took place at Frederica? 11. What was accomphshed by 
Pepperell? 12. How did the final war begin? [13. Tell the story 
of Washington's part in the war. (See Seawall, A Virginia Cavalier ; 
Wrong, The Conquest of New France, Chronicles of America, chap, 
vi.)] 14. What great event ended the war in America? De- 
scribe the taking of Quebec. 15. What was done with New France 
by the treaty of peace? [16. If the Bourbons had conquered the 
colonies, what changes would have taken place in American fife ? Have 
the French any reason to be glad because the Bourbons failed? (The 
teacher should not fail to make plain that the loss of New France 
was a turning point in Bourbon power and that it helped, therefore, 
to make possible the modern democratic world. Had the Bourbons 
prevailed, the French Revolution might have been long delayed and 
democracy would not have played the great part it did in the nineteenth 
century.)] 




iT 



COLONISTS CAPTURED BY THE INDIANS 



aranrat; 







1:1 „ :M.-3?^:^j;-:<^^^t^ M'm:^^^' 



piEOEaaE 




A MEET OF HUNTERS AT A SOUTHERN MANSION 



CHAPTER \TI 

AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT TO 1763 

125. The New Security of the Americans. When the French 
wars ended and it became certain that we would not be con- 
quered by the Bourbon kings, our fathers had been develop- 
ing our country for more than a hundred and fifty years. 
During that time great changes had taken place. The hard- 
ships of early colonial life (Chapter IV) were now, except 
among hunters and trappers in the forests, things of the past. 
The Indians were no longer a danger except to the distant 
settlements far removed from the sea. There were still, to 
be sure, in western New York the powerful Indian confed- 
eracy, the Six Nations,^ and along the mountain wall in 
the South the Cherokees still had possession of great forests, 
but in 1763 both the Six Nations and the Cherokees were 
friendly to the Americans. The most striking feature of 
American life during the next ten years was its comparative 

iSo the Iroquois had come to be known; their six tribes were Mohawks, 
Onondagas, Cayugas, Oneidas, Senecas, and Tuscaroras. These last came 
north and joined the others after their defeat in 1712 (section 115). 

134 



AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT TO 1763 135 

freedom from danger. The pirates (section 93) had dis- 
appeared from the sea ; the French had been driven off our 
Northern frontier ; the Spaniards had been beaten so thor- 
oughly that they were no longer a danger on the Southern 
frontier ; westward the Indians were quiet. After a hundred 
and fifty years of constant peril peace came to the Americans 
as a great joy. 

126. Colonial Trade; the Molasses Act; Navigation Acts. 
In the main the country was prosperous. This was due to its 
large trade. Here, again, the friendship of the Western In- 
dians was a piece of good fortune. The fur-traders who went 
into the Indian country came home with rich cargoes, and 
now that all the West as far as the Mississippi was freed 
from the trade restrictions imposed by the jealous Bourbon 
kings (section 106), American traders were eagerly flocking 
into those far regions from which formerly they were ex- 
cluded. Thus began that Westward movement of the 
Americans which led in time to the formation of so many 
states of our present Union. 

Many things besides furs were carried abroad by ships 
built and owned in America. Cotton, rice, indigo,^ dried fish, 
hemp, iron, tar, turpentine, and lumber were the leading 
American exports. The imports included most, though by 
no means all, of the manufactured articles used in the colo- 
nies and practically all the luxuries. Hardware, silverware, 
and beautiful furniture from England, silks and wines from 
France and Portugal, and tea, spices, and exquisite porce- 
lain from China found their way plentifully to the colonies. 

However, American business was hampered by certain 
acts of the British Parliament designed to keep colonial 

^The successful cultivation of indigo was due to the experiments of a 
brilliant young woman, Eliza Lucas, of South Carolina, who at sixteen was 
called upon to manage three plantations owned by her father, then absent 
on duty as a soldier. She became the wife of Charles Pinckney and mother 
of the patriots Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Thomas Pinckney. At 
her funeral, in 1793, Washington, by his request, was a pallbearer. 






M^^ 



K' 

r^^^ 





^ ' i^ j>^ '"■'♦•a,. 



ELIZA LUCAS ON HER PLANTATION 
From a pen-etching by Sears Gallagher 




AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT TO 1763 137 

manufactures from competing with English manufactures ; 
for example, colonial manufacture of hats was prohibited. 
Other Parliamentary laws restricted trade. In 1733 the Mo- 
lasses Act forbade the colonists to buy sugar or molasses ex- 
cept in those West India islands which lay within the Empire, 
but Parliament would 
not take the trouble 
to see that the act 
was enforced, and the 
Americans got round 
the law by means of 
smuggling. Sugar was 
bought cheap in the 
French West Indies. 

The New Englanders --^ 

imported quantities of 

molasses, which they capturing a whale 

made into rum. 

Parliament also passed Navigation Acts, with a view to 
compelling the colonists to export their most important 
agricultural products to England alone and to buy from 
England all their manufactures. However, these laws were 
generally disregarded. 

Two lines of trade, in particular, — the slave trade and the 
whale trade, — were immensely profitable. Though many 
Americans disapproved of slavery,^ and though attempts 
were made to abolish the slave trade," it was so profitable 
and there was such demand for slaves in some parts of the 
South that the New England sea captains (section 90) often 
based their fortunes on the trade in slaves. 

1 The American opposition to slavery was begun by Quakers in the seven- 
teenth century. A famous antislavery pamphlet, "The Selling of Joseph," 
was published at Boston in 1701. 

2 The Virginia Assembly passed a number of bills designed to put a limit 
to the growth of slavery, but the king vetoed (section 134) them all. This 
was one reason why the king became unpopular in America. 



138 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Most profitable of all New England industries was the 
whale trade. The killing of whales by means of a harpoon 
thrown by a seaman standing in the bow of a ship's boat 
led to thrilling adventures. From many a little port in New 
England noble ships, built in New England shipyards, went 

out to rove the ocean in 
pursuit of whales. Oil 
extracted from whale fat 
made the fortune of many 
a great merchant. 

127. The Rich Men : the 
Merchant, the Patroon, the 
Planter. Trade had pro- 
duced wealth. Among the 
American merchants were 
men who, for that time, 
were very rich. They built 
fine houses, drove about 
in stately carriages, wore 
velvet coats with satin 
waistcoats, and had quan- 
tities of silver on their 
tables and sideboards. 
Such a merchant was 
John Hancock, in whose 
beautiful house on Beacon Street, Boston, there was a ball- 
room sixty feet long. Beautiful portraits of these prosperous 
people were painted by J. S. Copley, our first great artist. 
In New York also there were great merchants who lived in 
similar style, but many of the wealthiest New Yorkers made 
their money from the land. Most of these were descendants 
of the patroons of the Dutch time (section 65). In their 
large country houses along the Hudson, with their troops of 
slaves among their numerous tenants, they lived much as 
did the great nobles in Europe. 




A GREAT COLONIAL HOUSE IN NEW 
YORK, THE "JUMKL MANSION" 



AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT TO 1763 



139 



Besides the merchant princes in New England and the great 
landlords in New York, there were the wealthy planters in 
the South. Their wealth grew out of the lands granted by 
the king to their ancestors. After long cultivation these plan- 
tations had become very valuable, and the planters loved 
to beautify them. The houses, generally, were approached 
through long avenues of oak trees. The gardens surrounding 
the mansions were laid out 
in imitation of the famous 
gardens of Europe, but 
they contained flowers 
and flowering trees more 
gorgeous than were to be 
found in Europe north of 
the Alps. Not far from the 
planter's mansion stood 
the village of his slaves 
— not unlike the serf vil- 
lages which in the Middle 
Ages were found in Eu- 
rope close to the castles of the lords who ruled the land. 

128. Colonial Travel. For all their prosperity the Ameri- 
cans had not greatly improved their means of communica- 
tion. Along the rivers they relied on the use of boats, much 
as their fathers had a hundred years before (section 91). 
Everywhere, practically, boats had to be used in crossing 
streams. Bridges were very few. For travel along the coast 
small ships called sloops were used. The voyage from New 
York to Philadelphia in a sloop took, as a rule, four days. 

Saddle horses were the favorite means of travel by land. 
Rich people traveled in their own carriages, attended by 
their servants on horseback. Stagecoaches going from place 
to place at stated times became familiar soon after the close 
of the French and Indian wars. One of the first of the 
*'fast" stages was known as the flying machine because 




AN EARLY MAIL COACH 



140 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

it conveyed passengers from Philadelphia to New York in 
only two days. Slower stages required three days. The 
stagecoach was one of the picturesque features of colonial 
life, — a great high carriage with seats both inside and on the 
top and drawn by at least four horses. Besides the driver, 
it had a ''guard," who looked after the wants of the passen- 
gers and blew a horn when the stage approached a village. 

A serious drawback of all colonial travel was the lack of 
good roads. Though the king's highway was sometimes fairly 
good, — like the old post road from New York to Boston, — 
it was oftener a mere trail that had been widened into what 
we call today a dirt road. Over such highways the royal 
mail carriers made poor time. So great was the expense of 
the post office that the rate of postage was very high. 
Twenty-five cents a letter was not an infrequent charge. As 
a rule the charge was paid not by the sender of the letter but 
by the one who received it. 

129. Education; the Colonial Colleges. By the end of the 
great wars every New England colony except Rhode Island 
had a law making some degree of education compulsory. 
However, many young Americans were sent to England for 
their education. This was especially frequent among South- 
erners, who liked to attend the famous English universities 
for the study of law. But already several American colleges 
destined to grow into great institutions had been established. 
In New England were three — Harvard (section 53), Yale, 
and Dartmouth ; in New York there was King's College, 
which is now Columbia University ; New Jersey had a college 
which is known today as Princeton University ; at Philadel- 
phia Benjamin Franklin had founded the University of 
Pennsylvania ; at Williamsburg, \' irginia, was the second 
oldest of all these, the College of William and Mary, founded 
in honor of the two sovereigns who received the crown in 
the Revolution of 1688 (section 109). Our first medical 
school was founded at Philadelphia in 1765. 



AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT TO 1763 



T4T 



Though many Americans, then as now, were not able to 
go to college, very few were without schooling. As a people 
they were eager readers. None of the great mansions was 
without its library. At Westover, Virginia, the library of 
Colonel Byrd numbered four thousand volumes. New books 
from England and France found a ready sale in America. 
Furthermore, the Americans had their own newspapers. 







COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARY, WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA 

The oldest of these was the Boston News-Letter, which be- 
gan to appear early in the eighteenth century (1704). When 
the French wars ended there were some forty newspapers 
(though none were dailies) in English America. 

130. Population. The extent of the change in American 
conditions is shown by the increase of population. From a 
handful of discontented settlers at Jamestown the colonists 
had increased in number to a million and a half.^ Of these, 
however, some three hundred and fifty thousand were negro 
slaves. In the North — that is, everywhere north of Mary- 
land—the slaves were one in ten of the whole population ; in 
the South they were four in ten. This meant that already 



^New England, 473,000; middle colonies, 405,000; the South, 718,000. 



142 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the Northerners and the Southerners had distinctly different 
ways of living. In the North the greater part of the white 
population were either small farmers, who did not employ 
slaves, or merchants, or artisans, or sailors, in whose work 
slaves were not profitable. This was true both of New Eng- 
land and the middle colonies. From Maine to Pennsylvania 
none but the few rich people owned slaves ; in the South, on 




SLAVES GATHERING TOBACCO 



the other hand, all the large plantations were worked by 
slaves. The free artisans were few, and the merchants were 
not as numerous as in the North. Broadly speaking, even in 
1 763 the South was an agricultural region ; the North was an 
industrial region. The coal, the iron, the homemade manufac- 
tured articles, and the ships of the colonies came from the 
North ; the cotton, rice, tobacco, and much of the beef and 
other food came from the South. There were no great cities. 
Philadelphia was the largest, with about twenty thousand 
people. New York, Boston, Charleston, though smaller, 
were hardly less important. Baltimore was beginning to take 
a place among the leading towns. All these lacked conven- 
iences which even petty towns now think they must have. 



AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT TO 1763 143 

Their streets were dirty and unpaved and sewers were un- 
known. Philadelphia alone had a public water supply. It 
is not strange that ill health abounded in the colonial cities 
and that epidemics were frequent. In the Southern colonies 
yellow fever was always to be dreaded. 

131. Southern Colonial Life. The Southerners had pre- 
served the old traditions of country life in England. They 
loved to entertain large companies for days or weeks at a 
time in their spacious country houses. They delighted in all 
out-of-door sports, especially riding to hounds ; that is, gal- 
loping across country following the hounds in pursuit of a 
fox. In the South, as in England, Christmas was the greatest 
day of the year. On every plantation at Christmas there was 
a joyous feast not only for the master and mistress, with 
their guests, but also for their slaves. The gentlemen wore 
laced coats brought from England or France ; the ladies wore 
splendid brocaded gowns. In the evening there would be 
dancing, while some fine lady played the harpsichord or a 
group of negro fiddlers bobbed their heads, making music 
for the merry crowd of dancers. 

The Southerners had no town meetings as the New Eng- 
landers had. They lived too far apart for anything like 
that. The Southern colony was divided into counties, 
the officers of which were appointed by the governor. In- 
variably the governor bestowed the offices on some of the 
great gentlemen of the colony ; in fact, the wealthy planters 
had come to feel that they were entitled to manage the 
affairs of the county and that such poor people as there were 
should humbly allow them to do so. 

132. New England Colonial Life. In New England the 
men of chief importance in every locality were the leading 
merchant and the minister. These men, though not as pow- 
erful as the leading planters in the Southern counties, had 
great influence in the town meeting (section 46), where their 
advice was almost always accepted by most of the voters. 



144 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The chief feature of New England life was the observance 
of Sunday, called by its old name, Sabbath. It included the 
twenty-four hours from sundown Saturday to sundown Sun- 
day. During those hours no work not absolutely necessary 
was done. IMeals prepared the night before were eaten cold. 
Religious services or pious meditation at home were supposed 




A COLONIAL DINING ROOM, JOHN ALDEN HOUSE, DIXBURY, 
MASSACHL'SETTS 



to fill one's thoughts. Everybody, young and old, went to 
church. The sermons were very long, lasting two and even 
three hours. Sometimes old people who were tired fell asleep 
or young people grew restless. An official called the tithing- 
man was always on the lookout for such offenders. He had 
in his hand a long rod with a soft bit of rabbit fur on one end 
and a brass tip on the other. If a lady began to nod the 
tithingman wakened her with a touch of the rabbit fur, but if 
a mischievous boy got unruly he received a rap on the head 
from the other end of the rod. 



AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT TO 1763 



145 



There was much in New England Hfe that was lofty and 
inspiring. Even that stern attention to religion, though it 
may seem to us too stern, had the effect of making all New 
Englanders thoughtful. It is not strange that New Eng- 
land produced the first great American philosopher, Jona- 
than Edwards, who was also a very famous preacher. 




A COLONIAL BEDROOM, JOIIX ALDEN HOUSE, DUXBURY, MASSACHUSETTS 



Then, too, the severity of the long winter compelled people 
to make indoor life bright and cheerful. No Americans have 
ever given more attention to what may be called fireside 
life — the pleasant talk around the fireside in the long, 
bleak winter evenings. Very probably it was because New 
Englanders had for generations amused each other by telling 
tales around the fireside on winter nights that in the nine- 
teenth century they produced the most famous American 
novelist, Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

Many of the prosperous men of New England spent most 
of their time sailing the sea in command of ships. This had 



146 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

a great effect on New England life. While the men were at 
sea their wives learned to manage all the affairs of the family 
without assistance from their husbands/ Thus New England 
women came by degrees to feel there was no reason why 
they should not do, if they wished, almost anything that men 
did. One result of this, long afterwards, was what is known 




franklin's printing press and a modern newspaper press 



as the woman's rights movement, which developed into the 
movement for woman's suffrage, of which we shall hear later. 
133. Middle Colonial Life, In 1763 the people of the 
middle colonies were living about as Americans live, today. 
Among them were rich people, but the rich did not control 
the government as did the planters in the South. Though 
the middle colonists were not lacking in regard for reli- 
gion, they did not share the religious sternness of the Puri- 
tans. They were busy, practical, and good-humored. Many 
of them were just the sort of people we have in mind today 
when we speak of typical Americans. Already they were 
showing themselves true Americans by their quickness in 

iSee page 126, note, for a somewhat similar experience in the South. 



AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT TO 1763 



147 



adapting to their needs whatever they found useful. They 
put together the county system of the South and the town 
system of New England. Today their example is followed in 
most of our states, which, as a rule, have both towns and 
counties. This is but one of the many things in which the 
example of the middle colonies has been followed by the 
greater part of the country. 

Though the mechanical history of 
our country began in the shipyards 
of New England, the great matter of 
electrical invention began in Phila- 
delphia. Benjamin Franklin demon- 
strated that lightning and electricity 
were the same thing. He then in- 
vented a machine to generate elec- 
tricity. The millions of electrical 
appliances in use today — telegraphs, 
telephones, phonographs, dynamos, 
motors, etc. — may all be regarded as 
the children of the little machine in- 
vented by Franklin over a century 
and a half ago. 

134. Common Features of Colonial 
Life. All the colonies had the three 
following features in common : 

I . At the head of every colony was 
a governor. In Connecticut and Rhode Island he was elected 
by the people ; in Pennsylvania and Maryland he was ap- 
pointed by the lords proprietors ; in all other colonies he was 
appointed by the king. His duties were practically the 
same as those of the governor of a state today, with one im- 
portant exception. When a bill was passed by a colonial 
assembly the governor had to see that it received the ap- 
proval or disapproval of the king. If the king vetoed — 
disapproved — the bill it could not become a law. 




STOVE IN THE HOUSE OF 
BURGESSES 

Designed by Franklin and 

now in the State Library 

of Virginia 



148 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UxNITED STATES 



2. Every colony had an elected assembly, which levied 
taxes and decided how the money collected should be spent, 
and generally paid the governor's salary. Thus the colonists 
put into practice their belief that they had the ancient Eng- 
lish right to a voice in the matter of taxation (section 98). 

3. Every colony in 1763 
permitted religious freedom 
to all Protestants, though un- 
fortunately complete religious 
freedom such as was estab- 
lished in Rhode Island and 
early Maryland was not uni- 
versal.^ However, so general 
was the feeling against reli- 
gious despotism that the time 
was almost come when all 
Americans were to be given 
complete religious freedom. 
Less than thirty years after 
1763 the new republic of the 
United States put into its constitution the provision that 
''Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment 
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." 

135. The "First American." During the hundred and fifty 
years since the settlement of Jamestown the English in 
America had gradually changed. At first they were merely 
Europeans who had left their old homes. The famous 
Americans of the seventeenth century were either born in 
Europe or in such close touch with Europe that we cannot 
say America formed them ; but in 1763 there were men who 
owed nothing to direct experience of Europe, who had been 
formed altogether by American conditions. Though they 

1 In Maryland the Revolution of 1688 had its dark side. A bitter quarrel 
between Protestants and Catholics ended in curtailing religious freedom and 
making the Church of England the established church of the colony. 




BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 



AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT TO 1763 149 

still called themselves Englishmen, they were different from 
the English in England. They were the sort of men we 
meet today everywhere in America. The American people, 
in distinction from the English people, came into existence 
about the middle of the eighteenth century. The first con- 
spicuous example of this new sort of man was Franklin ; 
therefore he has been sometimes called the first American. 

Franklin had an adventurous career. Born in Boston in 
1706 of poor parents, he went as a boy to Philadelphia, 
where he learned the trade of printer. He had a passion for 
scientific study. Educating himself as best he could, he 
became in time so noted as a scientist that he was made an 
honorary member of some of the most important scientific 
societies of Europe. 

He was also a great writer, celebrated for his wit. The 
king made him deputy postmaster for the colonies. He 
lived to be the first minister of the United States to France, 
where he was greatly admired. He died in 1790. 

SUMMARY 

The French wars were followed by an interval of peace and 
prosperity. Though Parliament had passed Navigation Acts and 
other laws restricting American business in various ways, these 
laws were seldom enforced, and the colonists thought little about 
them. There were now in the colonies great landholders and 
great merchants who had wealth and who lived luxuriously. 
Though some Americans went to Europe to be educated, there 
were good schools in most parts of the country, and several col- 
leges had been founded. Newspapers were published. The popu- 
lation numbered a million and a half, of whom three hundred and 
fifty thousand were negro slaves. ]\Iost of these slaves were held 
in the South, M'hich was mainly an agricultural region, while the 
North was chiefly an industrial region. In most of the colonies, in 
one way or another, the wealthy and educated people formed 
practically a local aristocracy. Every colony had the same three 
features in its government : a governor stood in place of the king ; 



150 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the Assembly levied taxes ; there was freedom of religion for all 
Protestants. Though the colonists still called themselves English- 
men, new conditions had somehow changed them ; they had be- 
come a new people — the Americans. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher: An'drews, Colonial Self-Goiiernment , chaps, xviii- 
xix; * Colonial Folkways (Chronicles of America); *Andre\vs (Kd.), 
Journal of a Lady of Quality ; Bassett, United States, chap, vi ; 
BoGART, Economic History of the United States, chaps, iii-vi ; Brig- 
ham, Geographic Influences (chap, iii), From Trail to Railway (chap, 
ii); Bruce, Social History of Virginia in the Se7>enteenth Century; 
Callender, Economic History of the United States, 6-68, 78-108, 
742-748; Channing, United States, II, 252-272, 367-398, 401-454, 
462-526; Coffin, Old Times in the Colonies; Earle, Customs and 
Fashions in Old New England; Fisher, The Quaker Colonies (Chron- 
icles of America); Fiske, Old Virginia, chaps, i, xiv; Hart, Contem- 
poraries, I, chap, xxi ; McCraoy, South Carolina under the Proprietary 
Government, \?iZ-\()\, 504-512; Merenes, iJ/«;>'/a«^/, 104-128; Osgood, 
History of Industry, chap, xvi ; Kax^'s.f.i., Eliza Lucas Pinckney; Roose- 
velt, Winning of the West, I, chaps, viii, ix, xi. 

For the Pupil: Baldwin, Discovety of the Old Northwest; Blais- 
DELL, Story of American History, 222-326; Brooks, Stories of the Old 
Bay State, \ 09- 1 38 ; " Colonel Byrd of Wcstover, Virginia," Century Maga- 
zine, June, 1 891; " Perils and Romance of Whaling," Century Magazine, 
August, 1 890 ; Earle, Home Life in Colonial Days ; Eggleston, Life 
in the Eighteenth Century, 107-182; Faris, Real Stories from Our 
History, chaps, i-vi, ix-xiv; Gordy, Stories of Early American History, 
chap, xvii ; Hart, Colonial Children, 94-100; Camps and Firesides, 
1-37, 153-309; South WORTH, Builders of Our Country, chaps, i-ix. 
Stone and Fickett, E^'eryday Life in the Colonies. See also references 
under Chapter III. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. In what ways had colonial life changed? [2. Suppose you came to 
the colonies about 1750 and had the notion that Americans still lived 
as they did in 1650, what surprises would you meet? (See Chapter IV ; 
also Earle, Home Life in Colonial Days ; Eggleston, Our First Cen- 
tury; Hart, Contemporaries, 173, 214, 224, 235, 266; Muzzey, Read- 
ings, 50, 75.)] 3. What were the chief colonial exports? 4. What was 



AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT TO 1763 



151 



the purpose of the Navigation Acts ? [5. Imagine yourself a traveling 
agent sent from England to see what was the effect of the Navigation 
Laws ; write home a letter describing colonial industry (see Osgood, 
History of Industry, chaps, xv, xvi).] 

[6. Imagine yourself an English visitor on a Southern colonial plan- 
tation ; write home to England describing your visit (see Andrews, 
Journal of a Lady of Quality).} 7. What broad difference was there 
between the North and the South ? [8. Imagine yourself a visitor in 
the house of a great colonial merchant ; write home telling how you 
are passing your time (see Andrews, Colonial Folkways).} 9. How 
did a rich man in Pennsylvania differ from a rich man in Virginia? 
10. Explain the difference between the government of a Southern 
county and the government of a New England town. 

II. What officer in each colony represented the king? What 
colonies elected governors ? Where were the governors appointed 
by the lords proprietors ? Where were they appointed by the king ? 
[12. Prepare a map showing the royal colonies of 1763. Contrast with 
the map prepared at the close of Chapter III.] 13. How were taxes 
levied in each colony and how were they spent? [14. Narrate the 
life of Franklin (see his Autobiography and More's Benjamin 
Franklin).'] 




THE BOWLING GREEN 



^"^ara^a^g=<?^MaMralaralB^K1wrarara^aralaR3^ 




:'i(aoaooaaLNOonrjaaooi^^^^^.'^w.w.\iKw.siM nK^^^i 



PULLING DOWN THE STATUE OF KING GEORGE 

THIRD DIVISION. HOW THE BRITISH 
EMPIRE BROKE IN TWO 



CHAPTER VHI 

TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 

136. The Formation of the British Empire. In the hundred 
and fifty years during which the English had been coloniz- 
ing America they had made settlements or conquests in 
every quarter of the globe. In 1763 a large part of India 
as well as a considerable number of trading posts in Africa 
were ruled by English governors. Long before Canada was 
conquered, an English colony was planted to the north of it 
on the shores of Hudson Bay. England held important 
colonies in the West Indies. These various countries — the 
British Isles, India, British Africa, the British West Indies, 
the American colonies — composed together the great Brit- 
ish Empire, which had begun with the union of England 
and Scotland when James I succeeded Queen Elizabeth. 

152 



TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 153 

137. The Consolidation of the Empire. At first the differ- 
ent states which composed the empire were very loosely held 
together. By degrees, however, the parts of the empire were 
more closely united. This was due to three changes that 
took place between the time of James I and 1763 : 

1. The commerce of the empire became enormous, 
employing a multitude of ships sailing every sea, back and 
forth, among hundreds of ports. To protect this commerce 
a great navy was created. Englishmen, Scotchmen, Irish- 
men, Americans, all shared in the commerce and all were 
protected by the navy. But how was the commerce to be 
regulated and how was the navy to be maintained ? As 
England was unquestionably the head of the empire, Eng- 
land's Parliament by common consent took charge of the 
whole matter of regulating the commerce and maintaining 
the navy. 

2. The Revolution of 1688 (section 109) greatly reduced 
the power of the king and increased the power of Parlia- 
ment. Early in the eighteenth century it became the settled 
custom for Parliament to express its approval or disapproval 
of the ministers who formed the king's cabinet and who 
acted in his name. The king was expected to remove min- 
isters who were disapproved by Parliament and appoint 
others who were acceptable. Thus his power was reduced 
in England but still remained very great in the colonies. 

3. The increase of trade in Great Britain put a great deal 
of power into the hands of a class of rich men who con- 
trolled British business. These men were the '^ money 
power" in Great Britain. Their ideas of how the empire 
should be managed are known as the Mercantile System. 
They thought that the colonies existed for the benefit of the 
mother country, and they wanted the colonists to give their 
whole attention to the production of raw materials — that is, 
unmanufactured articles, such as grain and lumber — and to 
buy all their manufactured articles in the British Isles. The 



154 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

money power induced Parliament to pass such laws as the 
Navigation Acts (section 126), designed to prevent the 
colonists from trading outside the empire, and the Hat Act 
(section 126) and others, restricting colonial manufactures. 
These three changes may be said to have consolidated the 
empire. The Parliament of Great Britain had come to 
believe that it was entitled to rule the entire empire pretty 
much as it thought best. 

138. The Americans and the Empire. There were people 
in America who denied that Parliament was entitled to all 
the power it claimed. They held that Englishmen in remov- 
ing to America had come out from under the authority of 
Parliament and that in each colony the colonial assembly 
under the king was supreme. They were willing to leave the 
control of commerce in the hands of Parliament, but denied 
that Parliament could tax them without their consent. In 
1763 the colonies were full of restless, ambitious men 
seeking new opportunities to increase their fortunes either 
through taking possession of the country beyond the moun- 
tains or through the enlargement of colonial trade. Such 
men would be quick to resent any new attempt of Parliament 
either to restrict their trade or to tax them without their con- 
sent. On the other hand, the British merchants who had 
such great influence in Parliament wanted to carry out the 
Mercantile System in all its provisions, while the king and 
his ministers wanted to lay what taxes they thought best on 
all parts of the empire. It would be very easy to provoke a 
quarrel between these groups of determined men — between 
the ambitious colonists in America and either the merchants 
or the politicians in Great Britain. 

139. King George III. In 1760 George III became king. 
He was obstinate and narrow-minded. The teaching of a 
foolish mother, who said, '' George, be a king," had inspired 
him with determination to be the real ruler of the empire. 
But in order to get control of the empire the king had first 



T E R K 
H P D S^ n"^ B 




EASTERN NORTH AMERICA JUST PREVIOUS TO THE REVOLUTION 



156 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to control a majority of the votes in Parliament. For a time 
he succeeded in doing so. Three things explain his tempo- 
rary success : 

1. He and his advisers aimed to carry out rigorously the 
Mercantile System and to compel the colonists to conduct 
their business accordingly. This pleased the money power 
and secured to the king its support in Parliament. 

2. He used bribery on a great scale and bought the votes 
of unscrupulous members of the House of Commons — the 
lower House of Parliament, corresponding to our House 
of Representatives. 

3. The British election laws of that day gave a vote to 
only one man in ten. Furthermore, in many localities one 
or two great landowners absolutely controlled the elections. 
One hundred and seventy-seven of these landowners had it 
in their power to dictate the choice of more than half the 
House of Commons. Most of the great landlords were 
noblemen who had seats by inheritance in the upper 
House of Parliament — the House of Lords, which corre- 
sponds to our Senate. By advocating legislation that pleased 
the nobles the king secured their support in both Houses 
of Parliament. 

King George was opposed in Parliament by a group of 
broad-minded statesmen and outside Parliament by a great 
part of the English people. The English political parties 
were the Whigs and the Tories. The friends of the king 
were mainly Tories; his chief opponents were Whigs, 
among whom the most noted were William Pitt, Edmund 
Burke, Charles James Fox, the Duke of Richmond, and the 
Marquis of Rockingham. These men saw that the liberties 
of England as well as the liberties of America would be 
destroyed if the king had his way. Nevertheless they were 
unable to keep the king from committing a long series of 
blunders which angered the Americans and at last produced 
a war that broke the empire in two. As a result the king's 



TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 



157 



friends deserted him, and he was forced to accept Whig 
ministers. The Whigs then began a series of reforms. The 
landholders were deprived of their power in the House of 
Commons. Gradually the control of the government was 
transferred to the English people. Today England is a 




FANELIL HALL, WHERE MANY PATRIOTIC MEETINGS WERE HELD, AND 
THE LEATHER STORE, BOSTON 

From an old engraving 

democracy; every Englishman and every Englishwoman 
above a certain age may vote for members of Parliament. 
140. The First Blunder: Writs of Assistance. The first of 
the king's blunders was made while the Seven Years' War 
was still going on. Military expenses were heavy, and England 
was running into debt. The king determined to raise money 
from America by enforcing the provisions of the Navigation 
Acts and the Molasses Act.^ Ships of war were stationed 
along the American coast to put an end to smuggling 

1 Though the Molasses Act expired in 1763, its provisions were renewed 
by the Sugar Act (1764). 



158 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

(section 126). Officers searching for smuggled goods were 
given a special kind of search warrant, called a writ of assist- 
ance, which hitherto had seldom been used in the colony. 
With one of these writs in his pocket an officer could walk 
into anybody's house, no matter how innocent the owner 
might be, search it from top to bottom, and if no smuggled 
goods were found walk away without so much as an apology. 
Great indignation was aroused by these writs. James Otis 
of Boston denounced not only the writs but the laws which 
had led to their employment. In a famous speech (1761) 
he denied the obligation of the Americans to obey such laws.^ 
But in spite of popular protest the royal governor stood firm, 
and the hated writs continued to be issued. 

141. The Second Blunder: the Proclamation Line. A still 
more significant action of the king's concerned the West. 
Those enterprising Americans who were so eager to take pos- 
session of the West (section 126) were astounded and in- 
furiated in 1763 when the king issued a proclamation closing 
against them all the country beyond the mountains. To be 
sure, the proclamation was not obeyed, and bold adventurers 
continued to "go West,"- but they took the risk of being 
driven out by royal officers, and this did not make them 
love the king. 

142. The Third Blunder: the Stamp Act. The king had 
made up his mind that America needed a standing army of 
ten thousand men. He said that its purpose was to protect 
the country in case of another war. But the Americans, 

^Otis sought to establish the principle that a search warrant can be issued 
by a magistrate only when an officer shows good reason for suspecting that 
some particular person has in concealment in his house the particular things 
he ought not to have. The Constitution of the United States, affirming this 
principle, provides (Amendment IV) that "no warrants shall issue, but upon 
probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing 
the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized." 

-In 1769, in defiance of the king, permanent settlements were made by 
Daniel Boone in Kentucky and by William Bean in Tennessee. In the valley 
of the Holston River a group of settlements formed the Watauga Association. 



TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 



159 




exasperated by the writs of assistance and the proclamation, 
were afraid he would use the army as did James II (section 
108). When he proposed to make them pay for the army 
they angrily protested, but no regard was paid to their 
wishes, nor would the king listen to Pitt (section 121), whom 
he had forced to resign and who now condemned his course. 
The king's friends in Parliament passed the Stamp Act, 
which required the colonists to place 
on every business document — such as 
a lease, a will, a receipt — and on 
every pamphlet and newspaper a 
royal stamp. The stamps were to be 
bought from the government, and 
varied in price from half a penny 
(one cent) to the equivalent of fifty 
dollars. The sale of these stamps was 
to help defray the cost of the army. 

143. Resistance to the Stamp Act. 
The way the Americans received 
this attempt to tax them indirectly might have been fore- 
seen by anyone less obstinate than King George. Every- 
where, as with one voice, they refused to buy the stamps. 
Said John Hancock of Massachusetts, ''I will never carry on 
business under such great disadvantages. ... I have a right 
to the liberties and privileges of the English Constitution, 
and as an Englishman I will enjoy them." 

Associations were formed called Sons of Liberty^ for 
the purpose of opposing the law. There were also ''Daugh- 
ters of Liberty," which were women's clubs whose members 
promised not to use English articles. 

In the Virginia Assembly Patrick Henry introduced a set 
of resolutions declaring that the Assembly had the sole right 
to tax the Virginia people. Defending his resolutions, he 



WiSHTLJLtK'OS/ 



REVENUE STAMP USED 
IN THE COLONIES 



^ The Americans were thus described in the House of Commons by 
Colonel Isaac Barre. 



i6o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

cried out: ''Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his 
Cromwell, and George the Third" — here he was interrupted 
by cries of ''Treason ! treason ! " He paused a moment, then 
scornfully continued, as if no interruption had occurred — 
"may profit by their example. If that be treason, then make 
the most of it." 

At the suggestion of Massachusetts, delegates from nine 
colonies assembled at New York in the Stamp Act Con- 
gress, which drew up a "Declaration of Rights and Griev- 
ances of the Colonists in America," — a formal statement of 
the principle that neither the king nor the British Parlia- 
ment had any right to tax the Americans without the con- 
sent of their own assemblies. Meanwhile, British merchants 
whose shipments to America went unsold became alarmed 
and protested against enforcing the act. The Whigs took 
the matter up in Parliament. In a stormy meeting, after 
Pitt had made an eloquent defense of America, the king's 
friends gave way and the act was repealed. So strong was 
the popular feeling against the act that when Pitt came out 
of the Parliament house a great crowd which was waiting 
received him with a shout. Numbers of people went along 
with him to his home, cheering all the way. In America the 
enthusiasm for Pitt knew no bounds. Statues were set up 
in his honor. One of these, at Charleston, South Carolina, 
still stands. 

144. The Fourth Blunder : New York Assembly Suspended ; 
Disturbances. During the agitation against the Stamp Act 
the king had kept at New York a part of his proposed Amer- 
ican army. He ordered the Assembly to provide quarters 
for the soldiers. The Assembly refused, and the royal gov- 
ernor suspended it (1767). Two years passed before the 
Assembly yielded. 

Now began a period of general disturbance in America. 
Several bloody fights took place between royal soldiers and 
mobs of citizens. In New York there was a fierce riot that 



TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 



i6i 



lasted two days -(1770). A famous street fight between sol- 
diers and citizens has been known ever since as the Boston 
Massacre/ In* North Carolina, bands of men called Regu- 
lators undertook to prevent the royal governor from exer- 
cising his authority. At the Alamance River the governor 
with his troops defeated 
the Regulators in a pitched 
battle (1771). Seven of 
their leaders were taken 
and hanged. The next year 
(1772) a royal revenue 
cutter, the Gaspee, was 
seized by a mob in Rhode 
Island and burned. 

145. The Fifth Blunder : 
the Townshend Acts ; Tea 
Parties. In the midst of 
these disturbances the king 
determined to renew his 
attempt to tax America. 
Pitt was no longer in Par- 
liament, and the king's 
friends, led by Charles 
Townshend, succeeded in 
passing a series of acts 
(1767) which required the 

colonists to pay duties on certain imports from England — 
tea, glass, lead, paints, and paper. Again from all parts of 
America went up a grim assertion that only through their 
own assemblies could Americans be taxed ; again the king 
lost his courage. All the duties but a very small one on 
tea were removed. 

1 The soldiers fired without orders. Five citizens were killed and several 
wounded. A great public meeting demanded the withdrawal of the soldiers 
from the city and the governor consented. Their officers tried for murder 
were defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy and acquitted. 




SAMUEL ADAMS, LEADER OF THE 
MASSACHUSETTS PATRIOTS 



1 62 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The colonists resolved to pay no duty, however small, 
that was levied without their consent. When ships laden 
with tea reached American ports and offered tea at a low 
price the Americans would not have it because of the duty. 
At Charleston the tea was seized and locked up in cellars, 
where it spoiled. At Annapolis the captain of the tea ship 
Peggy Stewart was compelled to burn it with the cargo. 
Philadelphia and New York forced the tea ships to sail 
away. At Boston, while three tea ships lay at dock, a band 
of citizens disguised as Indians rushed on board, burst open 
the tea chests, and threw their contents into the harbor. 
This famous ''Boston Tea Party" destroyed nearly a hun- 
dred thousand dollars' worth of tea.^ 

146. The Sixth Blunder : the Intolerable Acts. The king's 
friends in Parliament now passed what we Americans call 
the Intolerable Acts (1774). 

1. The port of Boston was closed to all shipping until the 
tea should be paid for, and Salem became the temporary 
capital of Massachusetts. 

2. The charter of Massachusetts was so altered as to make 
the royal governor practically supreme. 

3. All that part of the West lying north of the Ohio River 
was added to the royal province of Quebec. Although this 
"Quebec Act " was intended chiefly to give the West an effi- 
cient government, it seemed to the angry colonists one more 
attempt to prevent their crossing the mountains. 

The king had now given the Americans four main reasons 
for their bitterness against his rule : ( i ) he had denied 
them the political rights of Englishmen (section 98); (2) he 
had attempted to tax them against their will (section 142); 
(3) he had interfered with the free action of their assem- 
blies (section 144); (4) he had tried to coop them up in a 
narrow strip along the sea (section 141). 

lAt Edenton, North Carolina, a number of ladies met and burned in 
public a package of tea. Similar demonstrations were made at other places. 




"give me liberty or give me death" 



Harper & Brothers 



From "The Boys of '76," by Charles Carleton Coffin. Drawn by 
Edwin A. Abbey 



1 64 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

147. The First Continental Congress. There was general 
recognition that all the colonies were in danger of losing their 
liberties. The feeling which moved them was expressed by 
Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina, who said, ''There 
ought to be no New England man, no New Yorker, known 
on this continent, but all of us Americans." Patrick Henry, 
in advocating general support of Massachusetts against the 
royal authorities, made another of his ringing statements: 
''We must fight," said he. ... "I know not what course 
others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me 
death ! " 

Everywhere "Committees of Correspondence" kept the 
people informed of what was happening at Boston.^ By 
means of these committees, at the suggestion of the Virginia 
Assembly, a congress or convention of all those opposed to 
the king was convened at Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. 
This first Continental Congress, of which Washington was 
a member, was not aiming at separation from England, but 
its members were determined to enjoy in America the full 
rights of Englishmen. The Congress did three things that 
had great results : ( i ) it drew up a Declaration of Rights 
setting forth the belief of the Americans that they had in- 
herited the familiar English rights with regard to taxation ; 
(2) it organized the "American Association," all members 
of which were to bind themselves not to buy any British 
goods until Parliament repealed the Intolerable Acts ; (3) it 
sent to the king a humble petition begging him to redress 
our wrongs. 

148. The Seventh Blunder: the Order to arrest the Patriot 
Leaders; Minutemen. Few of King George's measures were 
more hurtful to his cause than an order sent over to General 

^Samuel Adams (papce 161), sometimes called the Father of the American 
Revolution, organized at Boston the first Committee of Correspondence. 
Adams was a chief mover in all the opposition to royal authority that took 
place in Massachusetts from 1763 to 1776. 



TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 



165 



Gage at Boston for the arrest of John Hancock^ (section 
143) and Samuel Adams (section 147, note), who were to be 
taken to London for trial on the charge of treason. This 
meant that if the king had 
his way Americans were no 
longer to have the protec- 
tion of their own courts." 

Gage heard that Han- 
cock and Adams were at 
Lexington. He also heard 
that minutemen had a 
store of powder at Con- 
cord. To seize the patriots 
and destroy the powder 
eight hundred soldiers left 
Boston secretly by night. 
But their movements were 
watched. Two lanterns 
hung up in the belfry of 
the Old North Church of 
Boston formed a signal to 
Paul Revere, who, for the 
purpose of warning the 
patriots, was keeping guard on the farther shore of Charles 
River. Mounting a fast horse, he set out on his famous ride. 

A hurry of hoofs in a village street, 

A shape in the moonlight, a bulk in the dark, 

And beneath, from the pebbles, in passing, a spark 

Struck out by a steed flying fearless and fleet : 

That was all ! And yet, through the gloom and the light, 

The fate of a nation was riding that night. 

1 Gage had suspended the Massachusetts Assembly. Its members gathered 
at Concord, calling themselves a Provincial Congress, and elected Hancock 
president. They at once set about organizing a militia — the "minutemen" 
— pledged to take up arms at a minute's notice. 

-Americans were entitled to be tried by a local jury. 




OLD NORTH CHURCH, BOSTON 



i66 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Hancock and Adams, warned by Revere, withdrew from 
Lexington and made their escape. 

149. Lexington and Concord. Revere also roused the min- 
utemen of the vicinity. Sixty were assembled on the village 
green when the royal troops, just before sunrise, April 19, 
1775, marched into Lexington. A royal officer cried out, 




CONCORD BRIDGE 



''Disperse, ye rebels," but they did not move. A shot was 
fired, — it is not known by which side, — and after that, a 
volley from the soldiers. Eight minutemen were killed and 
ten wounded ; the rest retreated. 

The soldiers marched on towards Concord. By this time 
the alarm had spread far and wide, and minutemen had as- 
sembled in large numbers. When the troops attempted to 
cross Concord Bridge they were met by such a withering 
fire that, brave soldiers though they were, they could not 
endure it. They fell back and began their retreat to Boston. 

The whole countryside was now swarming with armed 
men. They fought as the Indians had taught them to do — 
from behind trees, fences, stone walls. The royal troops 
marching along the highways were slaughtered as Braddock's 
army had been (section 120). Almost all the way to Boston 



TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 



167 



the fight continued. The loss of the soldiers was about three 
times that of the minutemen/ 

150. Siege of Boston; Bunker Hill. As if by magic a militia 
army, some sixteen thousand men, gathered around Boston, 
where Gage with six thousand men found himself besieged." 
When a force of Americans occupied the high ground back of 




Harper & Brothers 



BUNKER HILL 



From "The Boys of '76," by Charles Carleton Coffin. Drawn by 
Howard Pyle 

Charlestown Gage saw that they must be dislodged or they 
would fire down on Boston and drive him to his ships. He 
ordered Sir William Howe to drive off the Americans and 
fortify Bunker Hill. Howe, with nearly three thousand men, 
advanced against the Americans, who were not more than 

^The news of Lexington and Concord was carried swiftly by postriders 
to every corner of the colonies. The next month it inspired the people of 
Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, to pass resolutions declaring them- 
selves no longer subjects of the king. 

2 At first it was a serious question where powder was to be had. Ethan 
Allen, with some Vermont militia, seized Fort Ticonderoga, capturing 
quantities of powder and more than two hundred cannon. 



1^ 



i68 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

half as numerous. Under command of Colonel William 
Prescott they had thrown up trenches, behind which they 
waited, silent, for the attack. Prescott, who had been trained 
in the Indian wars, said to his men, ''Don't fire till you see 
the whites of their eyes." The royal troops came marching 
up the hill, in long even lines, all wearing the king's uniform 
of scarlet, white, and gold. They had almost reached the 
intrenchments before the Americans fired," but so deadly 
was the American fire that even the resolute, trained soldiers 
were thrown into dismay. Great numbers fell dead ; the 
others broke ranks and fled down the hill. But their loss of 
heart was only for a moment. A second time they charged, 
and again they were driven back. A third time they charged. 
The Americans having used up most of their powder slowly 
gave way before this third attack, and at the end of the day 
Howe was in possession of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775). 
But he had lost in killed and wounded more than a thousand 
men, twice as many as were lost by the Americans. 

151. Whigs and Tories in America. It was now necessary 
for everyone in America to take sides either with the king 
or against him. When the dispute began hardly any 
Americans had approved of the attempt to tax the colonists 
without their consent, but as time passed the dispute had 
ceased to be a narrow question over the right of taxation. It 
had divided the Americans into two great groups : those 
who were in the main satisfied with conditions in America 
and those who were not. 

The latter group very soon began criticizing not only the 
particular laws which they condemned but the whole plan 
of government which made those laws possible. From criti- 
cizing the British Parliament they had passed on to criticiz- 
ing the colonial assemblies. No colony gave the suffrage to 
all its citizens. These advanced thinkers began to say that 
everyone should have the right to vote. They complained 
that rich men had too much influence in the colonies just 



TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 169 

as they had too much influence in England. These radicals 
were known as the American Whigs. 

The opponents of the Whigs in America included all those 
people who were satisfied in the main with American condi- 
tions. Among them were many, though by no means all, 
of the wealthy and influential classes (sections 1 31-133). 



INDEPENDENCE HALL 



Among these were some of the great merchants, who were 
as well satisfied with the Mercantile System (section 137) 
as were the merchants of England. These JDegan to fear that 
the movement against the king might end in a general change 
and perhaps impair their fortunes. Some of the great land- 
holders began to have a similar fear. They dicf not want to 
lose their control of the local government, which would cer- 
tainly happen if everyone was allowed to vote. When the 
Whigs began talking about reducing the power of the rich 
and increasing the suffrage, these conservative people drew 
off from the movement and gave their support to the king. 
They adopted the name of the king's party and called 
themselves Tories. 



170 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

152. Second Continental Congress; Washington takes Com- 
mand. Each party tried hard to have a majority in the Second 
Continental Congress, which assembled in the statehouse at 
Philadelphia, May lo, 1775. The Whigs succeeded. They 
prepared for war with the king and named George Wash- 
ington as commander in chief of the colonial forces. On 
his way to the seat of war Washington heard how bravely 
the Americans had stood their ground at Bunker Hill. He 
exclaimed, ''The liberties of the country are safe!" Under 
a great elm, which still stands, in the old town of Cambridge, 
Washington for the first time received the salutes of his 
army as it marched past its general on July 3, 1775. 

153. The Eighth Blunder: the Proclamation of Rebellion; 
Civil War. Though they were in arms against a despotic 
king, the American Whigs were not yet aiming to secede from 
the empire. Their friends in England continued to urge the 
king to make concessions, but he stubbornly refused. While 
Washington was organizing the American army before Bos- 
ton a royal proclamation of rebellion branded all Americans 
in arms as traitors. From that moment a strong faction 
among the Americans favored secession. Their leaders were 
Patrick Henry of Virginia (section 143), Samuel Adams of 
Massachusetts (section 147, note), and Christopher Gadsden 
of South Carolina (section 147). However, they would have 
had hard work carrjnng their point had not the king's friends 
in America acted outrageously. Captain Mowatt of the 
royal navy sailed into the harbor of Falmouth (now Port- 
land), Maine, and burned the town. Lord Dunmore, the 
governor of Virginia, sent a force to Great Bridge to dis- 
perse the Virginia militia. When his men were beaten off 
in a sharp fight he revenged himself by burning Norfolk.^ 

■■ These outrages were later remembered in the Declaration of Independence, 
one of whose charges against the king is that "he has burnt our towns." 
To the king's credit it must be said that the burning of Falmouth, at least, 
met with royal disapproval. 



TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 



171 



Meanwhile the American Tories had taken up arms and had 
organized military forces. There was civil war among the 
colonists. The first important battle between Whigs and 
Tories, fought at Moore's Creek, North Carolina, was a 
victory for the Whigs (February 27, 1776). 

154. Capture of Boston; Battle of Charleston. The king 
was quick to take advantage of the fighting going on 
in North Carolina. 



mam 




THE SIEGE OF BOSTON 



While the 
"rebel" army was 
concentrated near 
Boston a royal fleet 
was sent to the 
aid of the South- 
ern Tories, but 
before it reached 
its destination two 
important events 
occurred: (i) Wash- 
ington seized Dor- 
chester Heights, overlooking Boston, and had the British 
army at his mercy ; whereupon Howe, who had succeeded 
Gage in command, went aboard his ships and sailed away to 
Halifax (March 17, 1776); (2) the North Carolina Tories 
were so disheartened by their defeat at Moore's Creek and 
by the news from Boston that their army melted away. 

Finding no one to cooperate with it in North Carolina, 
ihe' royal fleet continued its voyage southward. Sir Peter 
Parker, the royal admiral, thought he would offset the loss 
of Boston by seizing Charleston, but in order to reach the 
city he had to pass Fort Sullivan — a roughly built earth- 
work composed of palmetto logs and heaps of sand. Rude 
as the fort was, Colonel Moultrie, who commanded it, re- 
ceived the fleet with such a tempest of cannon balls that the 
royal admiral was glad to sail away (June 28, 1776). 



172 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

In the midst of the battle the staff bearing the flag of 
South CaroHna fell outside the fort. ''Don't let's fight 
without a flag ! " cried Sergeant Jasper. He leaped over the 
parapet in the face of the British fire and secured the flag. 

155. The Ninth Blunder: the Hiring of the Hessians. While 
the rebellion was threatening to become a great war the obsti- 
nate king made his last and worst blunder. So great was the 




Harper & Brothers 



SERGEANT JASPER 
From "The Boys of '76," by Charles Carlcton Coffin 

reluctance of Englishmen to serve against Americans that 
he decided to hire foreign soldiers. The Prince of Hesse in 
Germany agreed to furnish him with an army of thirty thou- 
sand Hessians. When this was announced in England the in- 
dignation of the Whigs knew no bounds. Their leaders made 
a formal protest against further opposition to the Americans. 
The Duke of Richmond proposed in the House of Lords to 
forbid the king to send Hessians to America, but the king 
and the Tories were immovable ; for the moment they con- 
trolled Parliament, and the Hessians were sent to America. 
156. Independence. The hiring of the Hessians was the last 
straw which turned the scale in America against the king. 



TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 173 

The Virginians led the way in a movement for secession. 
They called a convention, which declared the colony inde- 
pendent, May 15, 1776. On June 7 Richard Henry Lee of 
Virginia moved in Congress that ''these united colonies 
are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." 
John Adams of Massachusetts seconded the motion. It was 
carried, and a committee of five was appointed to draw up 
a Declaration of Independence — Thomas Jefferson of Vir- 
ginia, John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of 
Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and Robert 
R. Livingston of New York. The Declaration was written 
by Jefferson. By order of Congress its president, John Han- 
cock, signed the Declaration, July 4, 1776. Subsequently it 
was signed by the other members. 

The signing of the Declaration on July 4 was announced 
to a great crowd by the pealing of the "Liberty Bell" in the 
tower of the statehouse at Philadelphia. Fast as horsemen 
could carry it, the news spread. There were tumults of joy. 
Statues of King George were seized by shouting crowds and 
pulled off their pedestals. The gilded leaden statue of the 
king in New York was melted into bullets. 

SUMMARY 

The British Empire having extended into all quarters of the 
globe, the Parliament of Great Britain took charge of the regula- 
tion of its commerce and the maintenance of its navy. At the same 
time, through the Influence of the rich merchants of Great Britain, 
Parliament formed a colonial policy based on the Mercantile 
System. However, many Americans denied that Parliament was 
entitled to all the power it was using. These Americans held that 
in removing to the colonies they came out from under the author- 
ity of Parliament and founded new states, each entitled to be 
ruled under the king by its own assembly. Thus, in 1763 there 
were contradictory views of the rights of Parliament. 

George III attempted to recover the old power of the kings. 
He aimed to control Parliament through a majority composed of 



174 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

his friends. This seemed possible because a few great landholders 
dominated the elections. The king made friends of these land- 
holders, also of the money power, and got their support in Parlia- 
ment. He also used bribery. Thus he secured his majority, which 
was made up chiefly of members of the Tory party. Opposed to 
him were the leading men of the Whig party and great numbers 
of Englishmen outside Parliament. They saw that the liberties of 
England were at stake as well as the liberties of America. 

The king made a series of stubborn blunders which so exas- 
perated a large part of the American people that they resolved 
to withdraw from the British Empire. Meanwhile the first blood- 
shed of a great war had occurred in the light at Lexington (April 
iQ) i775)> which was soon followed by the battle of Bunker Hill 
and by the appointment of George Washington as commander of 
the colonial army. The royal forces were driven out of Boston 
and repulsed at Charleston. Finally, Congress voted to secede, 
and a formal Declaration of Independence was signed July 4, 1776. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : (On this subject wide reading is advised for the 
reason that within the past few years very radical changes have been 
effected in current views of the American Revolution and in the whole 
subject of the imperial policy with regard to the colonies. Every teacher 
should consider the somewhat extreme views of S. (i. Fisher, in The 
True History of the American Reiiolution^ as well as those of more con- 
ventional authors.) Bancroft, United States {^2&\. revision), II, 319-366; 
III, 30-40, 50-106, 134-148, 165-295, 319-337, 368-378, 447-458; IV, 
55-77) 167-184, 265-279, 310-346, 382-391, 4(2-452; Bassett, United 
States, chap, viii ; *Beckek, Beginnings (chaps, v-vi), The Eve of the 
Revolution (Chronicles of America), and An Experiment in Democracy 
(chap, iii); *Beer, British Colonial Policy, 265-316; *Channing, United 
States, I, chap, i ; III, chaps, i-vi ; Fiske, American Revolution, I, 18-78, 
1 1 1-197 ; H.VRT, Contemporaries, II, chaps, xxi-xxv ; Howard, Prelimi- 
naries of the Revolution, chaps, iii-xv ; *Leckv (Woodburn, Ed.), Amer- 
ican Revolution, 52-79, 80-165, 194-244; Macdonalu, Documentary 
Source Book of American History, 105-109, 122-131, 131-136, 136-139, 
145-150; O.sGOOD, History of Indusity, chap, ix; Trevelvan, Ameri- 
can Revolution, Part I, 100-174, 191-207, 274-384; Part II, 105-171 ; 
*TVLER, Literary History of the American Re-t^olution, I, 44-60, 229-245, 
475-519; Va.n Tvne, American Re^iolution, 34-49, 90-101, 248-268. 



TROUBLES INSIDE THE EMPIRE 175 

For the Pupil : (There is crying need of books adapted to the use of 
children which give the facts of 1 763-1 776 without romantic distortion. In 
selecting references for this period the teacher should always be on guard. 
Most of the books mentioned in Chapter VII overlap Chapter VIII.) BaR' 
STOW, The Colonists and the Revolution, 221-224; Cleveland, Stories 
of the Brave Old Times and Great Epochs in American History, III, 
66-79, 93-"i°9J Hawthorne, Grandfather s Chair and Twice Told 
Tales; Jenks, When America Won Liberty; Sparks, Men zsjho Made 
the Nation. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. What countries composed the British Empire? 2. What ideas 
were held by the powerful merchants of Great Britain ? 3. How was 
the Mercantile System put into practice by Parliament ? (Two 
answers) [4. Draw up a statement of all the causes that had contrib- 
uted to make Americans impatient of control. Take into account 
(a) religious causes, (i) the practice of self-government, (c) the 
habit of self-defense, (d) the economic freedom of the new country. 
(See Andrews, Colonial Folkways ; Becker, Beginnings of the American 
People ; Eggleston, Life in the Eighteenth Century ; Southworth, 
Builders of our Country.)] 5. Compare George III with James II. 

6. Which party supported the king? 7. Who opposed the king? 
Why? 8. Why did the king think he needed to tax America ? [9. Tell 
the story of resistance to the Stamp Act (see Becker, Channing, or 
Fiske ; Barstow, Colonists and the Revolution, 221-224; Macaulay, 
Essay on William Pitt).] 10. What was done in the Stamp Act 
Congress? [11. Were the king and his advisers wise or foolish in the 
way they dealt with the Americans ? If you had been in their place, 
what should you have done ? Why ? State the mistakes they made. 
(See sections 142, 144, 145, 146, 148, 153, 155 ; also Becker, Beginnings, 
chaps, v-vi ; Fiske, American Revolution, chaps, ii-iii ; Great Epochs, 
III, 93-109.)] 

12. What were the provisions of the Intolerable Acts? 13. What 
was the Declaration of Rights of the First Continental Congress ? 
14. How and why did the Americans divide into two parties and how 
did the parties get their names? 15. How much fighting took place 
before the Declaration of Independence? 16. Why did the Americans 
decide to secede from the British Empire? [17. Imagine yourself a 
delegate who worked in the Continental Congress for secession. Write 
a letter telling how you and your friends brought it about. (See Becker, 
Beginnings, 224-252; Fiske, American Revolution, chaps, iii-iv.)] 




THE ROYAL FLEET SAILING FROM NEW YORK 



CHAPTER IX 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



157. The Value of Sea Power. We study the wars in which 
our country has been engaged, first, because the courage and 
self-sacrifice of our ancestors serve to inspire us with a like 
devotion to duty, even, if need be, to the laying down of our 
lives ; and, second, because they are precious lessons in how 
to defend ourselves. The lesson which we should learn from 
the study of our war with George III is the military impor- 
tance of the sea. 

Until the last few months of the war the king had control 
of the sea along our coast. He could move his armies north 
or south and strike at Boston, New York, Philadelphia, 
Charleston, and Savannah almost as he pleased. On three 
great occasions the king shifted the whole scene of battle so 
as to increase the difficulties of the Americans by swiftly 
transporting his army along that easy, open road, the sea. 
This was done, first, in 1776, when Howe sailed from Halifax 
to attack New Yorkj second, in 1777, when Howe left New 

176 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 177 

York and took his army by sea to the head of Chesapeake 
Bay; third, in 1779, when Sir Henry Clinton made the great- 
est shift of all and transferred the principal seat of war from 
New York to Carolina. 

158. Howe's Attack on New York. In 1776 Howe, return- 
ing from Halifax (section 154) with a fleet and 30,000 sol- 
diers, anchored unopposed in the Lower Bay at New York. 

Washington had brought his army to New York, had con- 
structed forts along the Hudson, and had stationed 7000 
men on Brooklyn Heights under General Putnam. Howe 
landed 20,000 men south of Brooklyn, took Putnam by sur- 
prise, and drove him from his position, August 27, 1776.^ 

That night, in a dense fog, the beaten Americans withdrew 
across East River. Howe followed with such large numbers 
that Washington felt he had to retreat through the city and 
unite with other portions of his army farther north. He 
left Putnam with a small force to hold Howe back as long 
as possible and gain time for the Americans to concentrate. 
Putnam met Howe when he landed at the east end of what 
is now Thirty-fourth Street, fought a little battle there, and 
then slowly retreated. Howe attempted to overtake Wash- 
ington and force a battle at once. The royal general might 
have succeeded if it had not been for a charming and clever 
woman, Mrs. Lindley Murray, who had a fine house on 
Murray Hill, which is now a part of New York but was then 
outside the city. As Howe drew near her house she sent her 
servant begging him and his officers to stop and take lunch- 
eon. They accepted the invitation. Mrs. Murray was so 
entertaining and the luncheon was such a pleasant interrup- 
tion of the march that before Howe realized what he was 
doing he had lingered two hours. That small delay, slight as 
it was, gave Washington a chance to get his army together. 

^The American army was saved from destruction by four hundred 
Maryland troops, who threw themselves in the path of the invaders. 
All but fourteen were killed or captured. 



178 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

159. Washington forced to abandon New York ; Battle of 
Harlem; White Plains. However, Washington's force was 
still too small to make it possible for him to stand his ground 
against the invaders. The Americans had to continue falling 




GENERAL MAP OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR (SEE SECTION 1 74) 

back, but they did not run. There was much hard fight- 
ing. Near where Columbia University now stands was 
fought the battle of Harlem, in which an attack by part of 
the royal army was beaten off. Nevertheless, in spite of their 
stubborn resistance the Americans were driven slowly back, 
and after a defeat at White Plains (October 22) Washington 
crossed the Hudson into New Jersey. 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



179 



160. Washington's Retreat across New Jersey. Howe sent 
across the river one of his best officers, Lord Cornwallis, 
with a strong army, including many 
Hessians, and for a time Washington 
was in danger of being captured. 
He saw that with his Httle army now 
reduced to some six thousand men he 
dared not risk a battle; he had no 
choice but to retreat. His, purpose 
was to cross the whole state of New 
Jersey and withdraw his army across 
the Delaware River into Pennsylva- 
nia. There he thought he could make 
a stand and gain time to raise fresh 
troops. Thus begaji a celebrated re- 
treat which soldiers consider one of 
Washington's greatest achievements. 
Though his men were sadly down- 
hearted, his inspiring influence kept 
them from giving up and nerved them 
for hard marching day after day. 
Cornwallis hurried after them, but 
was never able to overtake them. 
Often, as the Americans crossed a 
stream and burned the bridge behind 
them, they saw the advance guard of 
Cornwallis come galloping up on the 
opposite bank. It was a race for life or death. Washington 
won the race. He took his army safely across the Delaware. 




NATHAN HALE^ 



1 During the desperate attempt to defend New York a brave young 
officer from Connecticut, Nathan Hale, volunteered to go into Howe's camp 
in disguise and tr>^ to find out what Howe planned to do. Hale succeeded 
in entering the camp, but was recognized and betrayed by a Tory kinsman. 
He was seized and condemned to death as a spy. His execution took place 
in an orchard near where Market Street now crosses East Broadway. His 
last words were, "I regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." 



i8o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Parties of American soldiers had seized or destroyed every 
boat on the east bank along seventy miles of the river's 
course. Cornwallis halted on the east bank. This was but a 
few days before Christmas. For the weary Americans on the 
west bank, who numbered now less than three thousand/ that 
Christmas was the saddest they had ever spent. Not only 




'& Harper & Urolhers 

THE BRITISH FORCES LANDING IN THE JERSEYS, NOVEMBER 20, 1776 

From "The Boys of "76," by Charles Carleton Coffin 

were they worn out from hard marching but they were also 
very nearly without food, and their clothes were in tatters. 
Washington was entirely without money ; he wrote to one 
of the noblest of the Whig leaders, Robert Morris, begging 
him to raise money immediately and buy food and cloth- 
ing for the soldiers. Morris was at Philadelphia, where he 
spent Christmas Day and the days following in what today 
we call a "drive," begging money from all his friends for the 
use of the army. He and Washington were both rich men, 
and they promised, if necessary, to give up their whole for- 
tunes. Other leading Whigs did the same, and the money 
needed was soon collected. 

1 Besides the battle losses, there had been many desertions. 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



i8i 



There is an old saying that it is always darkest before 
the dawn, which means that brave men when in great 
trouble will often rouse themselves and make heroic efforts 
that bring their troubles to an end. Washington and his 
army made such an effort on the night following that dreary 
Christmas Day. It was bitter cold, and the Delaware River 




WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE 

was filled with floating ice. In perfect secrecy Washington 
led his tattered army back across the river and marched 
eight miles through a blinding storm of sleet. His aim was 
to surprise and destroy a Hessian army which was camped 
at Trenton. The Hessians were comfortably housed, and 
on Christmas night they ate and drank with riotous merri- 
ment. In spite of the sleet Trenton was a blaze of joyous 
lights ; but through the storm, out of the darkness, the Ameri- 
cans were swiftly, silently drawing near. About daybreak 
they fell upon the city like a thunderbolt. The Hessians, 
taken by surprise, were totally routed ; practically the whole 
force was either killed or taken prisoner. The Americans 
lost but four men. It has often been said that the American 
cause was at its lowest ebb that bitter Christmas night when 
Washington gave the order to march to Trenton. 



1 82 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

161. Battle of Princeton; the British Retreat. Cornwallis 
had gone back to spend his Christmas in New York. Now, 
in hot haste, with fresh troops, he came hurrying westward. 
He thought that he could catch Washington at Trenton and 
destroy his army, but in order to do this he would have 
to bring together all the royal forces stationed at various 
places in New Jersey. While he was eagerly striving to do 
so Washington made another unexpected night march and 
again fought a battle at daybreak. He surprised a portion 
of the royal army at Princeton and won another brilliant 
victory (January 3, 1777). 

The feeling in the two armies was now reversed. The 
Americans were hopeful ; the invaders weredespondent. Howe 
and Cornwallis drew in their forces from New Jersey and gath- 
ered them close around New York. At the same time Wash- 
ington came back across New Jersey, fixed his headquarters 
at Morristown, and began collecting a more powerful army. 

THE TRIPLE INVASION OF THE MIDDLE STATES 

162. The Royal Fleet shifts the Seat of War. It now be- 
came plain what a great advantage the royal commanders 
had in their fleet. The Americans, looking out to sea, 
watched the stately warships of the king come and go as 
they pleased. Coming in from the wide field of blue water, 
they bore soldiers, ammunition, and food to New York and 
carried to Howe and Cornwallis the king's commands. They 
did more than this : when Howe got ready for another cam- 
paign it was by means of his ships that he moved to the point 
where he wanted to fight. At length the American outposts 
watching New York saw a great fleet — two hundred and 
fifty ships, looking very beautiful with all their white canvas 
spread in the glistening sun — sail out over the bright blue 
water, turn their prows to the south, and gradually grow 
smaller and smaller until they vanished beyond the horizon. 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 183 

Washington could only guess why Howe had sailed away ; 
but, as it turned out, he guessed correctly. Information 
from the interior of New York had already shown him that 
the British were planning a march from Canada to the 
Hudson. It was also reported that another royal army 
was threatening to move eastward from the shore of Lake 
Ontario along the valley of the Mohawk River. Howe 
had planned a third invasion; he intended to sail clear 
around Cape Charles and come up from the south against 
Philadelphia, where Congress was then in session. If 
Howe succeeded in capturing Philadelphia he would cut 
off communication with the Southern colonies and then, 
marching northward, might attack Washington in the 
rear, while the two other invasions coming down from 
the north would attack him in front. Washington deter- 
mined to make every effort to prevent the capture of Phila- 
delphia ; accordingly he marched swiftly to the south. 
Howe, meanwhile, sailed up Chesapeake Bay and landed 
his army. 

163. Washington's Effort to save Philadelphia; Brandy- 
wine; Germantown; Valley Forge. Moving toward Phila- 
delphia, Howe met the army of Washington at Brandywine 
Creek. The British outnumbered the Americans two to one. 
Washington was defeated and driven back ( September 11).^ 
Howe entered Philadelphia, while Congress fled from the 
city, after appointing Washington dictator. Shortly after- 
wards (October 4) Washington attempted to regain the 
city. Taking advantage of a dense fog, he hoped to sur- 
prise and destroy the part of the royal army encamped at 

^In this unfortunate battle a brilliant young Frenchman, the Marquis 
de Lafayette, who was serving in the American army, showed great bravery 
and was wounded. Lafayette, though a noble, was an enthusiast for liberty 
and had come over from France to serve as a volunteer in the American 
army. Only nineteen, he had nevertheless received from Congress a commis- 
sion as major general "in consideration of his zeal, illustrious family, and 
connections." 



1 84 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Germantovvn. He had almost succeeded when six royal com- 
panies seized the large stone house of Chief Justice Chew 
and used it as a fort. There they held out until strong 
reenforcements came in haste from Philadelphia, and Wash- 
ington was forced to retreat. He fixed his camp at Valley 
Forge (December 19, 1777). 

164. The Failure of the Western Invasion; Fort Stanwix.^ 
While Howe had succeeded so brilliantly with the Southern 
invasion the royal commanders of the other invasions had 
both failed. Colonel St. Leger, com- 
mander of the Western invasion, got 
as far as Fort Stanwix, which he 
besieged. The approach of an army 
of New York militia commanded by 
General Herkimer forced him to turn 
aside. In the furious battle of Oris- 
kany he suffered a defeat; but the 
militia were not strong enough to fol- 
low up their success, and St. Leger 
resumed the siege of Fort Stanwix. 
Very soon, however, an American 
army commanded by Benedict Arnold 
advanced to the relief 



1 Fort Stanwix will al- 
ways be remembered in 
America as the place where 
the Stars and Stripes were 
first raised in battle. The 
story is that the Fort Stan- 
wix flag was made by a 
soldier's wife, who cut up 
an old blue army overcoat, 
a red flannel petticoat, and 
some white cloth to make 
it. It is supposed that Paul 
Jones (section 169) was the 
RAISING THE IMPROVISED FLAG OVER FIVE first to raise the American 
CAPTURED FL.-VGS AT FORT STANWIX flag over a ship of war. 




The Red Ensign, or Meteor Flag, was 
the commercial flag of England in 1775. 
It consisted of a red field, a blue canton, 
the red cross of St. George of England, 
and the white cross of St. Andrew of 
Scotland. When Ireland was joined to 
the Union in 1801 the cross of St. Pat- 
rick was added, making the Union Jack 
of the present day. 




The American colonists in 1775 laid six 
white stripes on the field of the Red 
Ensign, making thirteen stripes to repre- 
sent the colonies. The canton was re- 
tained to represent the empire. This 
flag was raised by Washington at Cam- 
bridge, July 2, 1776.. It was the first 
distinctive flag representing colonial 
union. 




On June 14, 1777, Congress removed 
the crosses from the canton and replaced 
them by a circle of thirteen white stars. 
Congress resolved " that the flag of the 
United States be thirteen stripes, alter- 
nate red and white; that the union be 
thirteen stars, white on a blue field, rep- 
resenting a new constellation." This flag 
was probably raised for the first time at 
Fort Stanwix, New York, August 3,1777. 




At first a new stripe and a new star 
were added for each new state. It was 
seen, however, that this would make the 
flag too large, and in 1 818 Congress voted 
to return to thirteen stripes, but to add 
a new star for each new state. The addi- 
tional star is added on the fourth of 
July next succeeding the admission of 
the new state. 




THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLAG 



1 86 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of Fort Stanwix. St. Leger gave up his invasion (August 22 ) 
and hastily made his way back to Canada. 

165. Burgoyne's Invasion; Bennington; Saratoga. Far 
more important was the other of the two invasions which 
failed while Howe was conquering Pennsylvania. The forts 

at Crown Point 

and Ticonderoga^ 
were captured by 
General John Bur- 
goyne, who came 
south along Lake 
Champlain. As he 
was in need of 
provisions he de- 
cided on a raid 
into Vermont and 
sent a detach- 
ment of Germans, 
commanded by 
Colonel Baum, to 
collect what they 
needed from the 
farms of the vi- 
cinity. The \'ermonters flocked together near the village 
of Bennington and prepared for battle. Colonel John Stark 
joined them with eight hundred New Hampshire militia. 
Led by Stark, they destroyed Baum's army (August 16, 
1777). By this time Burgoyne had lost a great many men 




BURCOYNE S EXPEDITION 



^Vermont was not counted among the thirteen states, and the region had 
had a curious history. It was claimed in whole or in part by Massachusetts 
(section 61, note), New Hampshire, and New York (section 73, note). Before 
the Revolution the king decided that it did not belong to Massachusetts. 
The people of the section declared themselves independent in 1777 and set up 
a government of their own. New York and New Hampshire objected, but 
after a while New Hampshire (1782) and, later. New York (1790) renounced 
their claim to Vermont. 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 187 

and was now heavily outnumbered by the Americans gath- 
ered from all parts of New England and New York ; never- 
theless he pushed on with dogged courage, seeking to smash 
his way through to Albany. There was furious fighting, 
especially at a place called Freeman's Farm, but at last 




WASHINGTON S CAMP AT VALLEY FORGE 

Burgoyne was surrounded at Saratoga. There he gave up the 
contest and surrendered his whole army (October 17, 1777).'^ 
166. The Terrible Winter at Valley Forge. These suc- 
cesses of the Americans in the far north formed a turning 
point in their fortunes (section 167) and offset to some ex- 
tent the discouraging events in Pennsylvania, and yet at the 
end of this year the hearts of the patriots were heavy. Their 
capital was in the hands of the king's army, and Congress 
was meeting in Chester, Pennsylvania. What a difference 
between Washington's camp at Valley Forge and the camp 
of the king's army at Philadelphia! The city that winter 
was filled with gayety. The royal officers were brilliantly 
entertained by their Tory friends, and they, in turn, gave 

^The general who received the surrender, Horatio Gates, does not de- 
serve the credit for it. The real work was done by his subordinates, Gen- 
erals Lincoln, Arnold, and Morgan, and by General Schuyler, whom Gates 
succeeded in command. 



l88 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

an entertainment which is still, noted as one of the most 
splendid ever given in America. At Valley Forge, on the 
other hand, there was so little shelter that the soldiers suf- 
fered bitterly from the cold ; their clothes were in rags ; 
many had to go barefoot, and left bloody footprints on the 
snow ; there was insufficient food — even to this day Valley 
Forge is a byword in America for desperate suffering. The 
fact that Washington kept his army together under such con- 
ditions is the best evidence of the greatness of his character. 
Only a hero could have inspired those desperate men to keep 
at their posts through that terrible winter.^ 

167. France takes the Side of the Americans; Monmouth. 
While the American soldiers were barefoot in the snow at 
Valley Forge and our hopes were almost gone, help came 
to us. It was given by England's old enemy, France. 

As soon as the colonies had declared themselves independ- 
ent they turned to the nations of Europe to see whether any 
would lend them a helping hand. Franklin was sent over 
as envoy to France.' The French admired him greatly, and 
the French king as good as told him that if the Americans 
should prove themselves reliable soldiers and win some 
great military event he would come to their aid. Soon after 
the news of Burgoyne's surrender arrived at Paris the king, 
Louis XVI,^ concluded a treaty of alliance with the United 
States of America. This was the same thing as declaring 
war upon England (February 6, 1778). 

^At Valley Forge a distinguished foreign volunteer joined the American 
army. This was Baron von Steuben. Washington turned over to him the 
task of training the men. Von Steuben was a born drill master and worked 
wonders. When Washington took the field in 1778 his army was admirably 
drilled. There were other distinguished foreigners who served as volunteers 
in the American army. Lafayette has been mentioned (section 163, note). 
There were also his friend Johann de Kalb, a Bavarian gentleman, and two 
distinguished Poles, Pulaski and Kosciusko. 

^With Franklin were associated Arthur Lee and Silas Deane. 

3 Louis had aided us secretly before this by giving Franklin money to be 
spent as he thought best. 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 189 

A French fleet and army were at once sent to America; 
thereupon Sir Henry Chnton, who had succeeded Howe as 
the royal commander in chief, decided to draw all the royal 
forces together at New York. With that end in view Clinton 
left Philadelphia and started across New Jersey. 

The spring had now come. The men at Valley Forge 
were thoroughly trained and eager to fight. At Monmouth 
in New Jersey, while Clinton was on his way to New York, 
Washington attacked him (June 28, 1778). If one of his 
generals^ had not disobeyed orders Washington probably 
would have won a brilliant victory. As it was, Clinton's 
march was turned into a retreat, but nevertheless he suc- 
ceeded in getting safely to New York. 

Washington, following close after, came back at last to 
White Plains (section 159), which he had left nearly two 
years before. In that time he had established his reputation 
as one of the world's great soldiers. He fixed his head- 
quarters at White Plains and began the long siege of New 
York, which did not end until the close of the war. 

HOW THE WAR EXTENDED TO MANY PARTS OF 
THE WORLD 

168. Many Enemies of England join in the War. The war 
now became almost world-wide. All the enemies of England 
took part. Spain and Holland, both of whom had old quar- 
rels with England, openly declared war. Several other nations 
which were not willing to come forward and fight England 
nevertheless agreed upon a plan to help the Americans. The 
''Armed Neutrality" of Prussia, Russia, Sweden, and Den- 
mark was an agreement to let the Americans trade with the 
ports of those countries. 

1 Charles Lee (who was not related to the patriot Lees of Virginia) was 
bitterly jealous of Washington and probably wished him to fail. Congress 
dismissed him from the army. 



190 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

169. The War at Sea; John Paul Jones. The powerful 
navies of France and England encountered each other in 
many parts of the world and fought tremendous battles. At 
the same time the Americans did some gallant things at sea. 
Many American merchantmen were fitted with cannon and 
sent out to prey upon British commerce. These were known as 
privateers. Congress also built a few ships of war.^ Though 
John Barry, as early as 1776, made our first capture of a 
British ship, the most famous seaman of our infant navy 
was John Paul Jones, who hoisted the Stars and Stripes on a 
ship which Franklin obtained for him in France and which 
bore the French name Bonhomme Richard. In this ship 
Jones sailed up the east coast of England and met a British 
man of war, the Scrapis. The two ships promptly opened fire. 
In those days a naval battle was not at all like the sea fights 
of today. The ships came close together, and sometimes the 
men of one ship clambered on board the other and fought 
with its crew hand to hand. In this case the ships fought 
for two hours, while the muzzles of their guns very nearly 
touched. At one time Jones stopped firing for a moment, 
and the British commander called out to know whether he 
would surrender. ''No," said Jones, ''I haven't begun to 
fight." At length a great explosion of powder on the Serapis 
caused her commander to yield (September 29, 1779). 

170. The War in the Forests. The year in which France 
entered the war (1778) saw grim fighting in the American 
backwoods. Under Tory leaders the Iroquois, who had 
remained faithful to the king, raided Wyoming Valley, 
Pennsylvania, and Cherry Valley, New York, slaughtering 
the inhabitants without mercy. Similar raids by the Chero- 
kees, also in cooperation with Tories, had already desolated 
parts of Tennessee, Georgia, and South Carolina. 

1 During the war a Connecticut inventor, David Bushnell, built the first 
submarine, The Turtle. Though it was not a success, it demonstrated that 
boats could be operated under water. 




FIGHT BETWEEN THE SERAPIS AND THE BONHOMME RICHARD 
From a pen-etching by Sears Gallagher 



192 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



to the mouth of the Tennessee. There, leaving the boats, 
they made their way through a great forest in southern 
Illinois toward Fort Kaskaskia, on the east bank of the 
Mississippi a little below St. Louis. So swift and stealthy 
was their approach that no warning of it reached the fort. 
One night a dance was given by the unsuspecting garrison. 
Suddenly the Virginians appeared. They surrounded the 










'1f'""'' • • ■■■'/'S.I ^ ■■*^ 



FORT SACKVILLE, VINCENNES, INDIANA 

fort, and Clark entered the dancing-hall. Naturally the 
dancers were terrified. '^Keep on with your merriment," 
said Clark, ''but remember that you now dance under 
Virginia, not Great Britain." 

17L Clark takes Vincennes. With the aid of a French 
priest at Kaskaskia, Father Gibault, Clark persuaded the 
settlers of that region to take an oath of allegiance to the 
American cause, and several at once volunteered to serve 
in his little army. 

A far more difficult task was still to be accomplished. On 
the Wabash River, in southern Indiana, stood Fort Vin- 
cennes. The British commander at Detroit, Colonel Hamil- 
ton, hearing what Clark had done, gathered all the men he 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



193 



could and hurriedly marched down to Vincennes. The win- 
ter had now come, and between Kaskaskia and Vincennes 
lay the '^drowned lands/' overflowed by the Wabash. Sup- 
posing that no men could cross the drowned lands in the 
dead of winter, Hamilton had not kept careful watch, but 




CLARK S CAMPAIGN IN THE WEST 



Clark's men crossed them, wading sometimes breast-deep 
through water that carried floating ice. Clark was under the 
walls of the fort before Hamilton dreamed of his approach. 
After a hot fight Hamilton hung out a white flag. In a little 
church in the old town of Vincennes he surrendered to the 
Americans the whole Ohio Valley from the mountains to the 
Mississippi (February 25, 1779).^ 

^This country was covered by the original grant to Virginia (section 24). 
It was now described as "Illinois County" and was considered a part of 
Virginia. For what was done with it later see section 185. 



194 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

172. Double Advance of the Royal Armies; Brier Creek and 
Stony Point. The great success of Clark in the West ap- 
peared for the moment to be offset by British success in the 
South. A royal army which had moved north from Florida 
(section 123), though checked briefly by Colonel Andrew 
Pickens at Kettle Creek in Georgia (February 14, 1779), 
inflicted a serious defeat on the Americans at Brier Creek 
(March 3, 1779). Tories flocked to the royal standard, and 
the king's government was reestablished in Georgia. 

At the same time Clinton began an advance along the 
Hudson, thus preventing Washington from sending aid to 
the South, but he met with desperate resistance. At length 
his advance post, Stony Point, was stormed by General 
Anthony Wayne (July 16, 1779), and Paulus Hook, a 
fortress almost as important, was stormed by Major Henry 
Lee. Thus Clinton w^as brought to a standstill. 

173. Unsuccessful Attempt to separate the Two Royal 
Armies. Between the royal armies in New York and Georgia 
the sea was the connecting link. A French fleet tried to 
cut this link and prevent the two armies from cooperating. 
For that purpose the fleet landed a French army near Savan- 
nah. This force joined an American army commanded by 
General Benjamin Lincoln, and together they made a brave 
but unsuccessful assault upon the city (October 9, 1779). 
They were so disheartened by their failure that Lincoln re- 
treated to Charleston, while the French commander went 
aboard his ships and sailed away. 

174. The Great Plan of the Royal Armies. Clinton now 
had complete control of the sea. He could move his armies 
back and forth as he pleased between New York and 
Charleston. He decided to leave enough soldiers at New 
York to keep Washington busy while he shifted the bulk of 
his army to the South. The Southern royal army, if it 
could follow up its recent successes, might then work its way 
gradually northward. In time Washington would be caught 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 195 

between the two royal armies as in the grip of an enormous 
pair of pincers. (See map on page 178.) 

With a great force in ships and men CHnton sailed from 
New York^ and laid siege to Charleston. Its brave inhabit- 
ants and the resolute General Lincoln made a memorable 
defense, but the odds against them were very great. They 
were completely surrounded and at length compelled to 
surrender (May 12, 1780). 

From Charleston expeditions were sent into the interior, 
where a number of small but bloody engagements took place.^ 
Before long it seemed as if the whole region was securely 
in the hands of the British ; thereupon Clinton went back 
by sea to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command, 

175. The Partisan Leaders: Marion; Sumter. There was 
no organized American army, now that Lincoln had sur- 
rendered, either in the Carolinas or in Georgia. Neverthe- 
less, bands of daring men drew together and began what was 
known as guerrilla, or partisan, warfare — that is to say, 
they kept in hiding a great deal of the time, watching for 
some occasion when a portion of the royal army would 
become separated from the main body ; then, suddenly, they 
would swoop forth from their hiding place, attack and 
destroy the detached enemy, and, as swiftly, hurry away to 

lAt the same time he arranged for a number of small invasions to take 
place at various points along the coast from Virginia to New England. These 
were of importance, however, because they compelled Washington to remain 
in the North and thus kept the American forces divided. One time a fleet 
sailed from New York, and the next thing the Americans knew it had 
appeared before Norfolk, Virginia, and burned the town ; another time one 
of these New York fleets suddenly appeared before New London, Connecti-- 
cut, which, like Norfolk, was burned. This was done by Benedict Arnold, 
who had gone over to the king (section 177). Arnold massacred the garrison 
at Fort Griswold, New London, in cold blood (1781). 

2 The fighting in the South was especially desperate. One of the first of 
these small battles, at Waxhaw Creek, South Carolina (May 29), was the 
keynote of all that followed. Out of five hundred Americans two hundred 
and si.xty-three were killed or wounded. So many Tories were in the 
royal army that both sides were very bitter. 



196 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



some other place of concealment. The character of the 
country — lying low along the sea, with vast swamps through 
which no strangers could find their way — helped these 
partisans to carry on their war in this desperate fashion. 
Each band had its own leader. Best known of all were 
Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion. To the latter the 
British gave the name of ''Swamp Fox" because of the 
marvelous way he came and went among the swamps. 



Plif^:^^^^^^^^^^^p^[r^"^^^^ 




MARION IN CAMP 

176. Battle of Camden. All eyes were now turned upon 
the South. It was plain that if Cornwallis could not be 
checked he would push gradually northward and, between 
him and Clinton, Washington would be destroyed. Though 
Washington needed every man he could muster, it seemed 
absolutely necessary to send a part of the main American 
army to South Carolina. This was done (1780), and Gen- 
eral Gates was placed in command. The partisan bands 
flocked around him. Confident of success he met Corn- 
wallis at Camden. 

The battle which followed was one of the great disasters 
of the Americans. Cornwallis scattered our army to the 
winds (August 16, 1780). Gates, who galloped off the field, 
slept the next night at Charlotte, sixty miles away. 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



T97 




CONTINENTAL MONEY 



177. The Treason of Benedict Arnold. Perhaps there was 
no time during the whole war when the Americans felt less 
hopeful than in the month or two following the battle of 
Camden. Now, as always, the army was ill-fed, ill-clothed, 
and hardly ever paid. Clinton, hoping to persuade the Amer- 
ican soldiers to desert, sent spies among them to talk them 
into fury because of their 



lack of food and pay.^ He 
even made secret offers to an 
American general, Benedict 
Arnold, who commanded the 
important post of WestPoint. 
This bad man promised to 
betray his trust in return for 
$30,000 and a general's com- 
mission. He was found out, 
fled to the royal camp, and joined the royal army.- When 
Washington heard of the treason he burst into tears. ''Whom 
can we trust now ! " he exclaimed to Lafayette. 

178. No Satisfactory Government; Lack of Money. In this 
last crisis of the war we had no satisfactory government. 
The Continental Congress (section 156), after issuing the 
Declaration of Independence, undertook to make laws and 
govern the country very much as the Congress of the United 
States does today. In particular it attempted to raise money 
and equip the armies, but this problem of money proved its 
greatest difficulty. In the old days, before the war, when 
the king's generals bought supplies they paid for them in 
gold coin. When Congress wanted to buy, merchants asked 

1 Wretchedness and these spies, together, caused several mutinies. At 
first Washington allowed the mutineers to go home, but when he saw that 
the matter was getting serious he had some of them seized and shot. 

2 This shameful episode ended in the death of a brave and unfortunate 
young officer of the king whose capture had led to the discovery of Arnold's 
treason^Major John Andre. He had been sent by Clinton to arrange 
secretly with Arnold for the surrender of West Point. Arrested by American 
soldiers, he was finally hanged as a spy. 



198 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

for gold. But Congress had no gold. It could only issue paper 
notes, which were promises that gold would be given to the 
holder of the note at some time in the future. But what 
certainty was there that this would ever happen ? Suppose, 
after all, the king won, what would the notes be worth 
then? So all over America people objected to receiving 
these ''continentals," as the notes were called, because they 
were issued by the Continental Congress.^ If merchants had 
to make a trade, they would not count these notes at anything 
like what was supposed to be their value. In the dark days 
after Camden a continental dollar bill would not be ac- 
cepted in a store for more than two cents' worth of any 
kind of goods. 

179. Financial Aid; John Laurens. Except for financial aid 
from France the war would have come to an end long 
before. The French king gave us liberally ships, supplies, 
and money. Great loans were also made to us by the 
French. Nevertheless, after Camden we were in desperate 
need of money. Washington wrote that unless another 
great loan could be secured from France the cause was lost. 
John Laurens of South Carolina was sent to France to 
make a special appeal. Young, charming, and very hand- 
some, he captivated both the king and queen and obtained 
the loan. 

180. King's Mountain. Meanwhile, just when the cause 
seemed helpless, the tide turned in America. An army of 
frontiersmen was raised in those settlements beyond the 
mountains that are now Kentucky and Tennessee (section 
141). This force, led by John Sevier, marched eastward and 
combined with partisan bands from Virginia, the Carolinas, 
and Georgia. Their aim was to destroy a royal force of 
eleven hundred men, chiefly Tories, under Colonel Fergu- 
son. They gathered so swiftly, so silently, — as the Indians 
had taught them to do, — that before Ferguson was aware 

' This is why we have today the expression " not worth a continental." 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 199 

his camp at King's Mountain in South Carolina was sur- 
rounded.^ He was caught in a trap, and his whole force was 
either killed or captured (October 17, 1780). 

181. General Greene in the South; Cowpens; Guilford; 
Cornwallis invades Virginia. One of Washington's best gen- 
erals, Nathanael Greene, was now sent down to take the 
place of Gates. He had with him, as his right-hand man. 
General Daniel Morgan. The latter won a brilliant victory 




Greene's retreat through north Carolina 

over a part of Cornwallis's army commanded by Sir Banastre 
Tarleton at Cowpens (January 17, 1781), Thereupon Corn- 
wallis brought up his main army, but Greene, who was not 
ready for battle, skillfully retreated. Watching for his oppor- 
tunity, Greene at length turned upon Cornwallis and fought 
the battle of Guilford Court House in North Carolina (March 
15, 1781). It was contested so stubbornly that neither side 
can quite claim a victory ; however, Cornwallis lost so many 
men that he decided to move to Wilmington, on the coast, 
and there recuperate. 

iThe American army included some of the most noted frontiersmen, 
such as William Campbell of Virginia, Benjamin Cleveland and Joseph 
McDowell of North Carolina, and Isaac Shelby of Tennessee. Each leader 
had his own following, and a council of leaders directed the campaign. 



200 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



By this move Cornwallis divided his forces into two parts. 
One part, under Lord Rawdon, remained in South Carolina 
and was never again united with the other part under Corn- 
walhs. While Cornwallis rested at Wilmington, Greene 
marched south against Rawdon. Though he lost the hard- 
fought battle of Hobkirk's Hill (April 28), he was more 

successful at Eutaw Springs 
(September 8). The royal 
forces were finally shut up in 
Charleston and Savannah. 

In the meantime Cornwallis 
moved northward and invaded 
\'irginia, where there was a 
small American army com- 
manded by Lafayette. "The 
boy cannot escape me," said 
Cornwallis. But though the 
"boy" had to flee before him, 
the Americans led the invad- 
ers upon a long chase/ and at 
last, worn out with much 
marching, the royal soldiers 
had to be allowed to rest. Cornwallis seized Yorktown and 
began to fortify it. He counted upon soon receiving aid 
from Clinton. 

182. The Final Importance of the Ocean ; the French Fleet 
prevents the Union of Clinton and Cornwallis. Now, in the 
last event of the war, we are to see again how much the 
ocean counted for. Clinton meant to send a strong force to 
Virginia to enable Cornwallis to begin over. Washington 
saw that he would try to do so and determined to take a 




Courtesy ol the Boston Museum of Fine . 
LAFAYETTE, BY LA PERCHE 



^In the course of the march the British drove the Virginia legislature 
from the temporary capital, Charlottesville, and just missed capturing Jeffer- 
son, who was then governor of Virginia. John Jouctt made a famous ride 
across country to carry the alarm which enabled Jefferson to escape. 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



201 



great risk. With the larger part of his army he stole away 
from before New York and made a swift march all the way 
to Yorktown, but Washington would not have gained any- 
thing by this famous march if Clinton had still been able to 
come and go on the ocean as he pleased. What made it 
good generalship for Washington to do as he did was the 




-,Z3^ 



mlM^f^ , jm mm 




THE SURRENDER AT YORKTOWN 



arrival in American waters of a French fleet commanded by 
the Count de Grasse. Nearly eight thousand French troops 
were landed near Yorktown to cooperate with Washington 
and Lafayette. Then De Grasse stood out to sea to prevent 
any attempt of Clinton to reenforce Cornwallis. 

There was scarcely a more important battle in the whole 
war than a sea fight which occurred shortly after. Just as 
was expected, the royal fleet came down from New York to 
assist Cornwallis, but now, for the first time, there was a 
fleet in their path. Try to imagine the feelings of the Amer- 
icans, who had never before had such assistance, when they 
listened on a Sentember day to the roar of the cannon of 



202 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

De Grasse, fighting, off Cape Henry at the mouth of the bay, 
the battle of the Chesapeake. It was a complete victory for 
the French. The shattered fleet of King George fled back 
to New York and left Cornwallis to his doom. 

183. The Siege of Yorktown. Washington, assisted by the 
French general Rochambeau, now attacked Cornwallis with 
great vigor. The British, though outnumbered two to one, 
stood their ground very bravely in the midst of a circle of 
cannon. One after another, their chief defenses were car- 
ried by storm. At last Cornwallis surrendered. His whole 
army marched out of Yorktown and laid down their arms 
(October 19, 1781). 

184. The End of Royal Despotism in England; the Whigs 
insist on American Independence. The surrender of Corn- 
wallis practically ended the war. King George acknowledged 
himself beaten. He did so by giving up the attempt to rule 
England as he pleased. He consented to let his greatest Eng- 
lish enemy, the Whig leader, Lord Rockingham (section 139), 
take charge of affairs and bring the war to a close. Rock- 
ingham insisted that the king should acknowledge the inde- 
pendence of the Americans. With bitterness in his heart 
the king consented. There were long negotiations, but at 
length peace was made between England, France, and the 
United States. Our country was recognized as an independent 
power on September 3, 1783. King George surrendered to 
us all of British America (section 123) south of Canada 
with the exception of Florida, which was returned to Spain. 

SUMMARY 

The royal navy enabled the royal generals to strike the colonies 
at whatever points they pleased. Three times they forced the colo- 
nists to shift the scene of battle : 

I. In 1776 Howe sailed from Boston to Halifax and thence to 
attack New York. The Americans were defeated in the battle of 
Long Island and forced to retreat through the city and across 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 203 

New Jersey. On Christmas night, 1776, Washington recrossed the 
Delaware, surprised and defeated the Hessians at Trenton, and 
soon afterwards won a brilliant victory at Princeton. The royal 
forces fell back upon New York. 

2. The royal navy conveyed Howe's army to Chesapeake Bay. 
Howe defeated Washington at Brandy wine Creek and again at 
Germantown. Howe occupied Philadelphia, while Washington 
fixed his camp at Valley Forge. Meanwhile there were two north- 
ern invasions, one at Fort Stanwix, the other at Saratoga. The 
surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga led France to ally herself with 
the United States and declare war upon England. Holland and 
Spain also attacked England. Paul Jones raised the American 
flag at sea and won a famous victory over the British ship Serapis. 
George Rogers Clark conquered the British posts in the West. 

3. In 1780 Clinton moved a large part of his forces by sea to 
South Carolina, and Charleston was taken. Leaving Cornwallis 
in the South, Clinton returned to New York. He planned to 
catch Washington between his two armies as between a pair of 
pincers. A great victory won by Cornwallis at Camden was fol- 
lowed by the defeat of part of his army at King's Mountain. 
After the drawn battle of Guilford Court House, Cornwallis 
moved northward into Virginia and fortified Yorktown. 

A French fleet shattered King George's fleet and made it im- 
possible for Clinton to bring his army to Yorktown to aid Corn- 
waUis. Meanwhile Washington had marched south. Yorktown 
was besieged, and at length Cornwallis surrendered. 

King George now consented to make peace. Our country was 
recognized as an independent power and received all of British 
America south of Canada with the exception of Florida, which 
was given to Spain. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : Bassett, United States, chap, ix ; *Becker, Begin- 
nings, chaps, vii-x ; Brigham, Geographic Influences, chap, iii ; *Chan- 
NING, United States, III, chaps, vii-xii ; Fiske, American Revolution, 
chaps, ii, v-viii, xiii-xv; Hart, Contemporaries, II, Chaps, xxvi-xxxv; 
*Lecky (Woodburn, Ed.), American Revolution ; Macdonald, Docu- 
mentary Source Book, 176-183, 204-209; Mahan, The Influence of Sea 



2 04 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Power upon llistory, chaps, ix-xiv ; *McCradv, South Carolina in the 
Rci'olutioii \ *l\()(>si:vi:i.T, The Winning of i lie West, II, chaps, i-iv ; 
Van Tvnk, .hnerican Revolution\ *Wrong, VWisIiington and his 
Comrades in .Irn/s. 

For the Pupil : Haldwix, Conquest of the Old XortJiiL'cst \ Bakstow, 
The Colonists and the Rei'olutio/t ; Blaisdicll and Ball, Hero Stories 
from American History, chaps, vii, ix-xvii, xix ; Coffix, 77/(? Boys of 
'7<5 ; Cooke, Stories of the Old Dominion ; Faris, Makers of Our 
History, chaps, ii, iii ; *Fiske, The ]\'ar of Independence', Hawthorne, 
Grandfather's Chair; Hapgood, Paul f ones; M.K\yiS, Palmetto Sto7ies; 
MooKii, Benjamin Franklin ; Skawell, Twelve Great A'aual Captains ; 
SouTiiwoKTM, stories of the Empire State; Si'Akks, The Men nvJio made 
the Xation; ScUDDER, George W'asliinglon; WiLSO\, George Washington. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

Note. In an evenly moving chronological narrative like the foregoing 
chapter, where there is no argument to develop, it is needless to give a long 
list of specific questions. As to details, section by section, the questions are 
obvious. Subsequently certain larger questions are necessary in order to 
mass the facts and fix a clear general impression. 

I. What were the three main periods of the war previous to the 
summer of 1781? 2. How did the royal commander secure posses- 
sion of New York ? [3. Describe in one page what Washington did 
from the time he crossed the Hudson until he occupied Morristown. 
(The teacher should suggest the desperate ebb and flow of Washington's 
military fortunes in this episode.)] 4. What triple plan (section 162) 
was formed by the royal generals ? How did the royal fleet make pos- 
sible the shifting of the scene of war? 

5. Where else in America was notable fighting during the second 
period of the war? (Consider Clark, the Indian raids, Paul Jones, the 
invasion of the South from Florida.) 6. What European nations were 
fighting England at the same time as were the American colonies ? 
[Note. It should be insisted that after 1778 the war was world-wide, 
but that in a textbook of American history we concentrate on the 
American part.] [7. Narrate the part of France in the war (see 
Bancroft ; Channing ; Lecky ; Mahan ; Fiske, The War of Independ- 
ence; Morse, Franldin).] 8. What was Clinton's plan at the opening 
of 1780? Q. What immediate success followed the shifting of the scene 
of war to South Carolina ? 10. Where were the two royal commanders 
Clinton and Cornwallis in the summer of 1780 and how was it possible 
for Ihcm to cooperate? 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 205 

II. What great victory was won by Cornwallis between the sur- 
render of Charleston and the summer of 1781? 12. What royal 
disasters took place during this period (include Guilford Court House) ? 
13. After Cornwallis occupied Yorktown, how did Clinton again plan 
to shift the scene of war ? Did he succeed ? Explain. 14. What 
change in the control of the sea made the fourth period different from 
all the other three ? 

Note. A class play might present strikingly the patriotic motive in con- 
nection with Valley Forge. The suffering Americans would be contrasted 
with the comfortable Royalists. An American, taken prisoner, might be 
allowed to witness the famous entertainment in Philadelphia. This would 
be done for the purpose of influencing him to desert. The spectacle would 
have the opposite effect. The story could be developed according to the 
dramatic possibilities of the class. (For material see Lecky, American 
Revolution ; Trevelyan ; Coffin, The Boys of '76. See also Browne, The 
Project Method in Education.) Similar plays could be based on any episode 
involving a sharp contrast easily grasped by children, but to have any real 
educational value the contrast must involve a moral choice. For example, 
a Boston merchant chooses to lose his fortune to become a patriot; a 
patroon joins the patriots, though he knows they want to abolish his 
privileges; a Carolina planter sees his house burned (or burns it himself) 
and joins Marion. Every such play should be an acted fable with a moral 
that is perfectly clear. 

The fate of the Tories (section 151) has also a tragic side. These people 
who stood by the king were regarded by the Whigs as public enemies. They 
were subjected to much cruel treatment ; practically all of them were deprived 
of their property during the war, and after the war was over they were com- 
pelled to leave the country. A number of them went to Canada, where their 
descendants still live. (See Van Tyne, Loyalists of the American Revolution.) 

There are several good historical novels for this period: Ford, Janice 
Meredith (a story of the leading characters in the Revolution) ; Frederic, 
In the Valley (a story of Dutch life in the Mohawk valley during the 
Revolution) ; Jewett, The Tory Lover (a story of John Paul Jones and his 
career) ; Kennedy, Horseshoe Robinson (a tale of the Southern Tories) ; 
Mitchell, Hugh Wynne (a story of Philadelphia in the Revolutionary period) ; 
Simms, The Partisan (a tale of the Revolution in the South) ; Thompson, 
Green Mountain Boys (a story of Ethan Allen and his times). 



i::Z]^.:d!aOm^ATinL'^^nL'ilL'1feeiQ;^^ 








^/ ,;-=-iiaONCONSTiTUT, 









CELEBRATING THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION 

FOURTH DIVISION. HOW THE NEW REPUBLIC 
BECAME A PROSPEROUS COUNTRY 

CHAPTER X 



FORMING A NEW GOVERNMENT 

185. The American Confederation. Early in the war Con- 
gress had drawn up Articles of Confederation which were 
intended to bind the states together in one new country — 
the ''United States," but only after long dispute did all the 
states agree to accept the Articles. What delayed their ac- 
ceptance was the fear of the small states that the larger ones, 
especially Virginia/ would become too powerful. Finally, it 
was agreed that the Western country should be made into new 

1 Virginia claimed all the vast Western area described in her old charters 
of the kings (section 24). This included all the territory of the present 
states of Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Vir- 
ginia made a second claim to the Northwest because of Clark's conquest 
(section 170). There were other Western claims. Both Massachusetts and 
Connecticut in their original charters extended to the Pacific. Their grants 
conflicted with the Virginia grants. Massachusetts now claimed a large slice 

206 



FORMING A NEW GOVERNMENT 



207 



states, but that the old states claiming it should have great 
tracts of Western land with which to pay their Revolutionary 
soldiers. All the states then accepted the Articles (1781J. 
Soon afterwards Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance/ 
which provided for the formation of 
new states in the region north of the 
Ohio. In time five states were formed 
there — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michi- 
gan, and Wisconsin. 

186. Revolutionary Soldiers settle 
Ohio. The great state of Ohio was the 
first to be settled. In the northern part 
a large area known as the Western Re- 
serve was given to Connecticut, and by 
Connecticut divided out among its old 
soldiers. In southern Ohio another great 
area, known as the Virginia Bounty 
Lands, was used in the same way by 
Virginia. Numbers of Revolutionary 
veterans, together with their families, 
at once removed to Ohio and began to 
hew down the forests, clear the land, 
and settle the state. The first town in 
Ohio — Marietta — was founded by a 
Revolutionary veteran. General Rufus Putnam (1788). 
About the same time CinciuBati^ was founded ( 1 789) , chiefly 




BADGE OF A MEMBER 

OF THE SOCIETY OF 

THE CINCINNATI 



of present Michigan, while Connecticut claimed the northern part of Ohio, 
Indiana, and Illinois. Finally, New York claimed a large part of Ohio 
because it was once controlled by the Six Nations (section 125), who were 
subject to New York in colonial days. 

^This ordinance also provided that slavery should never exist in any of 
these states. There was then very little interest in slavery, and Southerners 
united with Northerners to exclude it from the Northwest. 

-Named from the Society of the Cincinnati, which was composed of 
veteran Revolutionary officers. The society took its name from the Roman 
dictator Cincinnatus, whose career was thought to resemble the career of 
Washington. 



2o8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




by settlers from New Jersey. Soon after, another Revolu- 
tionary soldier, General Moses Cleaveland, founded the 
great city of Cleveland (1796). 

187. Kentucky. Meanwhile, another state was forming 
south of the Ohio. During the war settlers had come into 
Kentucky, where they fought hard against the Indians. 
The bloody battle of the Blue Licks (1773) near Lex- 
ington,^ in which the 
Indians outnumbered 
them three to one, was 
a famous defeat for 
the whites. So numer- 
ous and so fierce were 
these Indian battles 
that Kentucky became 
known as the "dark 
and bloody ground." 

The exciting dangers 
of Kentucky life drew 
thither many bold adventurers. They felt equal to manag- 
ing their own affairs, and before long they were demanding 
a separate state government, such as had been promised to 
the settlers north of the Ohio. 

Virginia generously made little opposition to the wishes 
of her Western citizens. Only a few years passed before 
Kentucky became a separate state (1792). 

188. The Tennessee Settlers form the State of Franklin. 
Along Indian trails through the mountains many people 
came to Tennessee, which was still a part of North Carolina 
(section 141, note). However, the Tennesseeans, so far away 
from the Atlantic coast, felt that their interests would never 
receive sufficient attention at the distant capital of North 
Carolina. Like the Kentuckians, they demanded a separate 
state. John Sevier, who had led them so gallantly at King's 

' So named by its settlers on receiving news of the battle of LexinKton. 



© Harper &• Brothers 
FORT AT MARIETTA 

From " Building the Nation," by Charles 
Carleton Coffin 




DANIEL BOONE ON THE WILDERNESS TRAIL 

From a pen-etching by Sears Gallagher 



FORMING A NEW GOVERNMENT 209 

Mountain (section 180), was one of the most determined to 
have a new state. Under Sevier's guidance the frontiersmen 
held an election, adopted a constitution, and declared them- 
selves citizens of a state which they named Franklin. Sevier 
was chosen governor. 

North Carolina did not readily give up her Western lands. 
The frontiersmen had to wait some ten years before the 
quarrel was finally settled and they were allowed at last to 
have a state of their own — Tennessee (1796). 

189. The Advance of Democracy. The founding of these 
new Western states may be looked upon as the completion 
of the American Revolution. We have seen that our Revolu- 
tion was in no small part a struggle between two classes 
here at home (section 151). Those Americans who wanted 
to reduce the power of the rich, who aimed at universal 
suffrage (section 151), profited greatly by the establishment 
of these ''frontier" states. The new communities did not 
attract wealthy people ; their population was composed of 
brave, hardy, enterprising people who had their fortunes to 
make. In the free life of the frontier they felt that they 
were all about equal and they demanded an equal share for 
everyone in controlling the government — that is, democracy. 
Time and again we shall see the West turn the scale in favor 
of democratic ideas. Always we shall find the newest states 
the most unconditional believers in democracy. 

190. The Problem of Western Trade. All these frontier 
settlements along the Western rivers were separated by 
great mountains and by immense forests, hundreds of miles 
across, from the Eastern settlements along the sea. Not one 
road of any sort crossed the mountains between East and 
West. Though the Westerners were soon making good crops 
from the rich new land they cleared, there was no way to 
get their produce across the mountains to the Eastern coast, 
where it might be sold. Therefore they turned their eyes 
to the South. In that direction trade might be made easy, 



210 SCH(J()L HISrORV ()!■ THE UNITED STA'lES 



for almost every little farm in Tennessee or Kentucky or 
Ohio fronted on a river. At any of these farms a fiat- 
bottomed boat or a raft might be built, floated down the 
stream into the Ohio, down the Ohio into the Mississippi, 
and on to New Orleans. At New Orleans there were mer- 
chants, ships, all sorts of people buying and selling. Natu- 
rally the Westerners felt that 
for them, just then, the most 
important thing in life was 
to be free to go down the 
Mississippi and trade at New 
Orleans. 

But Spain ruled at New 
Orleans (section 123), and the 
Spaniards were not friendly to 
the Americans. They would 
not allow them to trade un- 
less they paid heavily — more 
heavily than they could afford 
— for the privilege, 
191. The Clash of Interest between East and West. The 
Westerners appealed to the people of the old Atlantic states 
to help them secure the freedom of trade on the Mississippi, 
but the Easterners, since their own trade had been ruined 
by the war, concluded that what they wanted most was the 
revival of trade upon the ocean, particularly with the Span- 
ish West Indies. Congress, which was controlled by East- 
erners, went so far as to negotiate a treaty that would have 
opened the Spanish ports to American ships but would have 
left the Mississippi closed, or nearly closed, against the West- 
erners. When it was known in the West what Congress pro- 
posed to do, there was an outburst of indignation ; the 
Westerners threatened to leave the Confederation and set up 
a new country of their own. So menacing were these threats 
that Congress dropped the Spanish negotiations in alarm. 




A SETTLER S LOG CABIN 



FORMING A NEW GOVERNMENT 



211 



192. Troubles in the East. There was no denying that the 
East, with its trade at a standstill, was in a most unhappy 
condition. Many of its people had been impoverished by 
the war, and great numbers were out of employment.^ There 
was much difficulty in collecting taxes. The state govern- 
ments were all in such distress for want of money that they 




THE COURSE OF WESTERN MIGRATION AND TRADE 



yielded to the temptation to get it any way they could. They 
did not scruple to take steps that would injure their sister 
states. A famous instance is the treatment of the little 
state of New Jersey by its powerful neighbor, New York. 
As New Jersey had no good harbor of its own, most of its 

^ Even those who still had employment found themselves compelled to bor- 
row money to keep their families from starvation. Many were imprisoned 
for failure to pay their debts. In central and western Massachusetts, where 
the farmers were hopelessly in debt, there was a serious uprising, led by 
Daniel Shays. He and his followers fought a battle with state troops at 
Petersham (1787) and were defeated. Shays's Rebellion caused general alarm. 



212 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

imported articles came to it through New York, and New 
York made all merchants trading with New Jersey pay a 
heavy tax. In helpless anger New Jersey laid an outrageously 
high tax on the lighthouse which New Y'ork had built on 
the Jersey side of the entrance to the harbor. 

193. Congress unable to restrain the States. All the while 
Congress met and passed laws and frequently begged the 
states to act differently. But Congress had almost no power. 
For example, it could not lay taxes. It could merely inform 
the states how much money it needed and ask each one to 
contribute its share. But if a state decided that the money 
was not needed and refused to contribute, there was nothing 
that Congress could do. 

Then, too, Congress was supposed to have charge of all 
negotiations with foreign governments. But in this, as in 
money matters, though Congress made promises to foreign 
powers, the states lived up to the promises, or ignored them, 
just as they pleased. This was particularly embarrassing in 
our relations with England. We wanted, more than almost 
any other one thing, an agreement enabling us to resume 
trade with England and the English colonies, but the British 
government refused to make any agreement because any 
one of the states might render such an agreement "totally 
useless and inefficient." 

194. Demand for a New Government; the Constitutional 
Convention. It is not strange that many leading men began 
to say that there was something wrong with the method of 
government. At last it was agreed to call a Constitutional 
Convention, made up of delegates from the various states, for 
the purpose of seeing what' could be done to improve the 
government. 

The Constitutional Convention assembled at Philadelphia. 
Fortunately almost all the ablest men in the country were 
present. Washington acted as chairman. Franklin was one 



FORMING A NEW GOVERNMENT 213 

of the delegates, so was Robert Morris. The Convention 
took nearly four months to draw up its new plan. During 
that long discussion no men were more prominent in its 
debates than Alexander Hamilton of New York, James 
Madison of Virginia, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and 
Charles Pinckney of South Carolina. 

As soon as the Convention met it became plain that there 
was wide difference of opinion as to what sort of government 
the country needed. The delegates from Virginia proposed 
what is known as the ''Virginia plan," which would have 
made Congress supreme in all respects, with power to set 
aside state laws of which it did not approve. The small 
states, which had been so slow to join the Confederation be- 
cause of their fear of the large states (section 185), felt that 
this plan suggested by the largest of the states threatened the 
small ones with destruction. They banded together under 
the lead of New Jersey and proposed the ''New Jersey 
plan," which aimed to guard the states against encroach- 
ment by Congress, but proposed to grant to Congress various 
new powers, such as the right to raise money by means of 
duties on imports. 

The advocates of the two plans wrangled so bitterly that 
more than once it seemed as if the Convention would break 
up without an agreement. But at last, through a series of 
compromises, the Convention combined features of both 
plans and drew up the great document now known as the 
Constitution of the United States. 

195. Main Features of the New Form, of Government. Six 
new features, all of immense importance, were added to the 
method of governing the United States. 

I. To quiet the fears of the small states Congress was 
divided under the Constitution into two "Houses"; in the 
Senate each state was given two votes and no more, while in 
the House of Representatives the states were represented 



214 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

in proportion ' to their population ; both Houses were re- 
quired to concur in order to enact a law. 

2. To put a stop to the obstruction of business by the 
separate states (section 192 ), the Constitution gave to every 
American citizen liberty to buy and sell anywhere in the 
Union. 

3. To make the national government self-supporting (sec- 
tion 193), the Constitution gave it the right to lay taxes and 
to collect them. 

4. To restore and sustain business activity (sections 192- 
193), the Constitution placed the sole control of commerce, 
both between the states and with foreign countries, in the 
hands of Congress. 

5. To make the general government more efficient (sec- 
tion 193 ), the Constitution provided for a president ( no such 
officer existed in the old Confederation) and put into his 
hands much of the authority formerly possessed by the king. 
But his veto, unlike that of the king (section 134), could not 
always prevent a bill's becoming a law. A bill could be 
passed in spite of the president's veto if it had the approval 
of two thirds of both Houses of Congress. 

6. To settle any dispute that might arise as to what the 
new government had a right to do, the Constitution created 
the Supreme Court of the United States, which was em- 
powered to pass judgment in any case that involved the 
powers of Congress. 

196. The Constitution Adopted; our Bill of Rights. The 
Constitution was sent to all the states to be voted upon by 
the people. There were many things in it which this person 
or that person disapproved of, and there was much discus- 
sion before the voting took place. However, most people 

1 In counting population it was agreed that every five slaves should be 
reckoned as three people. It was also provided that Congress should not 
restrict the slave trade (section 126) before 1808, though after that it might 
legislate on the subject as it chose. In 1808 the African slave trade was 
abolished under an act of Congress passed the previous year. 



FORMING A NEW GOVERNMENT 



215 



were convinced that some change had to be made and that 
they had better give the new scheme a trial. One after 
another, all the thirteen states voted to accept the Constitu- 
tion. But almost everybody had one great objection. They 
said, ''The Constitution does not protect us against arbitrary 
legislation by Congress; we fought the Bourbons and we 







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RECEPTION OF PRESIDENT WASHINGTON AT NEW YORK, APRIL 2;\ 1789 



fought King George to establish those political rights that 
Anglo-Saxons have slowly acquired during many centuries 
[sections 71, 98, 109, 134, 143, 147]; we are not going to 
take any chance of losing them now." By common consent 
ten amendments were added, and these form the ''bill of 
rights" of every American citizen. 

197. The Election of Washington. Our first national elec- 
tion was held early in 1789.^ George Washington was 

1 The Constitution provided that as soon as it was accepted by nine states, 
it should go into effect among those nine. In 178Q eleven states accepted 
the Constitution and formed the Union. North Carolina joined in 1789; 
Rhode Island in 1790. 



2i6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

unanimously elected president. New York was temporarily 
the capital of the country, and the government building on 
Wall Street was known as Federal Hall. It had a high 
balcony supported by stately columns. Standing in the bal- 
cony, while a great crowd filled the street below, Washing- 
ton took the oath of office, April 30, 1789. The Chancellor 
of the state of New Y'ork, who had administered the oath, 
then turned to the crowd and said, ''Long live George 
Washington, first president of the United States ! " And 
all the people shouted back to him, ''Long live George Wash- 
ington ! " while cannon at the Battery boomed in salute. 

SUMMARY 

Congress drew up Articles of Confederation with a view to bind- 
ing the states together. The small states refused to accept them 
until the large states, like Virginia, were reduced in size. Conse- 
quently the large states gave up their Western lands and the 
Confederation of the United States was established. In the West 
new states were rapidly formed, but the lack of roads across the 
mountains made it impossible for the settlers in the West to 
.send their products to the East. The Westerners wanted to trade 
by water with New Orleans. Spain, holding New Orleans, made 
this difficult. The West demanded that Congress force Spain to 
open the Mississippi. At the same time the Easterners made a 
different demand. They wanted to trade with Europe and with 
the British and Spanish West Indies. Many Easterners had been 
impoverished during the war and there was much discontent. The 
East wanted Congress to ignore the West and give all its atten- 
tion to restoring trade on the Atlantic. The various Eastern 
states quarreled with each other. They paid hardly any attention 
to the enactments of Congress. The Confederation seemed about 
to break up. To prevent this a convention was called which drew 
up a new scheme of union, embodied in the Constitution. This 
new scheme was adopted by the states, and Washington was elected 
our first president. 



FORMING A NEW GOVERNMENT 217 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : Bassett, United States, chaps, x, xi ; Beard, Amer- 
ican Government and Politics, chaps, i-iv ; Bryce, The American 
Commonwealth \ *Channing, United States, III, chaps, xiii-xvi ; Fer- 
RAND, Records of the Fedejal Convention, * Framing the Constitution, and 
The Fathers of the Constitution (Chronicles of America); *Fiske, The 
Critical Period in American History; Guitteau, Government and Poli- 
tics in the United States, chaps, xviii, xix; Hart, Contemporaries, III, 
chaps, vi, ix, x ; *JoHNSON, Union and Democracy (Riverside History), 
chaps, i, ii ; Macdonald, Documentary Source Book, 195-204, 209- 
216; McLaughlin, The Confederatioti and the Constitution, chaps, iii- 
xvii ; McM ASTER, History of the People of the United States, I, chaps, ii-v ; 
Roosevelt, The Winning of the West. 

For the Pupil: Barstow, A New Nation, 1-24; Elson, Sidelights 
ojT American History, I, chaps, ii, iii, xviii; Faris, Makers of Our History, 
chap, iv ; Griffis, The Roinance of Conquest, chap, vi ; Guitteau, Pre- 
paring for Citizenship, chap, xiii ; Irving, Washington; Roosevelt, 
Stories of the Gj-eat If 'est; Stone and Fickett, Days and Deeds a 
Hundred Years Ago, 16-53; Turkington, My Country. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. Why were the small states afraid to join the Confederation? 
2. What states claimed lands in the West ? 3. On what did the Vir- 
ginia claim rest (two answers) ? the Massachusetts claim ? the Connect- 
icut claim? the New York claim? (See sections 24, 171, 185, note.) 

4. How were the small states induced to join the Confederation ? 

5. What was the Ordinance of 1787? 6. How was Kentucky settled? 
7. How did Tennessee become a state ? [8. Explain how the move- 
ment for democracy which began in the Revolution was strengthened 
by the formation of frontier communities. (See Becker, An Experi- 
ment in Democracy, chaps, iii-vi ; Turner, The Rise of the New West, 
chaps, i-viii ; Paxson, The Last American Frontier, chaps, i-iv.)] 

[9. Describe a frontier settlement. (See Ogg, The Old Northwest ; 
Skinner, The Old Southwest ; Baldwin, The Conquest of the North- 
west ; Griffis, The Romance of Conquest ; Stone and Fickett, Days 
and Deeds.)] 10. Why did the Westerners want to trade with New 
Orleans? 11. What trade did the Easterners want? 12. How did the 
Easterners and the Westerners disagree over a treaty with Spain? 
[13. Here begins one of the greatest problems of American history: 
How are the interests of different sections to be adjusted ? The 



2i8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

problem must be borne in mind throughout all the remainder of our 
story. It would be well for ever)' pupil to keep a notebook in which 
to set down as they appear the sectional clashes in American history. 
Have you heard of any such clashes today?] 

14. Why was there discontent in the East ? How did the states treat 
one another ? Why could not Congress compel them to do differently ? 
15. W'hat was done to improve these conditions? [16. Write an essay 
on the Constitutional Convention. (See Ferrand, Framing the Constitu- 
tion; Guitteau, Preparing for Citizenship; Turkington, My CoHntry.)'\ 
[17. What rights are secured to us by the first eight amendments? 
(See Appendix for the text of the Constitution, and also references 
under problem 16.)] 



THE TREATY OF WATAGA — CHEROKEE INDIANS SELLING KENTUCKY TO 
THE TRANSYLVANIA LAND COMPANY 

A mural painting, by T. Gilbert White, in the Kentucky Capitol 




JOHN JAY ACCEPTS A TREATY 



CHAPTER XI 



THE FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 



198. Washington gathers Advisers and forms the Cabinet; 
Financial Policy. The governing of a country may be com- 
pared to an enormous business which has to have many dif- 
ferent men to manage the different parts of it. Washington 
at once divided up the business of the government among 
a number of eminent men who formed the cabinet. Among 
them were two of the greatest men our country has had — 
Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, and Thomas 
Jefferson, Secretary of State. 

It was Hamilton's business to raise money and get the 
country out of debt. He persuaded Congress to pass a 
tariff act (1789), which laid a duty on all foreign goods 
brought into the United States, and also to require 
every foreign ship to pay for the privilege of entering an 
American port. With the money thus raised he was able 
to meet the expenses of the government and, in addition, 
(i) to pay back the great sum lent us by France during 

the war, (2) to pay what we owed to the soldiers of the 

219 




© Harper & lirulhi 

Washington's inaugural procession 

From " Building the Nation," by Charles Carleton Coffin. Drawing by 
Howard Pyle 



FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 221 



Revolution, and (3) to pay the debts incurred by the states 
during their struggle with the king. 

Hamilton wished to put the control of the country as 
far as possible into the hands of the prosperous people. His 
aim was to make them all feel that it was to their interest to 
support the new government. 
Therefore he persuaded Con- 
gress to charter the Bank of 
the United States, which was 
to assist business men in vari- 
ous ways, especially by lend- 
ing them money.^ 

Hamilton's fondness for a 
strong central government 
made him enemies, and though 
they could not prevent the 
establishment of the bank, 
they drew together and began 
to oppose him systematically. 
Their leader was Jefferson. 
Hamilton's friends organized 
themselves in his support. 

Thus two political parties were formed. Hamilton became 
the leader of the Federalists ; - Jefferson, of the Republicans.^ 

^The bank also issued paper currency that was good in every state. A 
mint was established where coins were issued. Jefferson secured the adoption 
in our currency of the new decimal system of measures recently invented 
in England by James Watt (1783). Strangely enough, England would not 
adopt any part of Watt's system ; we adopted only the portion that applied 
to money ; the French took the entire system, applying it to money, weights, 
quantities, and distances, and giving the various measures French names. 
It is known today as the metric system. 

2 This word had been used previously as a sort of nickname for all those 
who wanted to adopt the Constitution. Those opposed to adoption were 
called Antifederalists. 

2 About 1830 the name of Jefferson's party was changed to "Democratic." 
Its old name must not be confused with that of the later Republican party, 
which still exists. 




ALEXANDER HAMILTON 



22 2 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

199. Federalists and Republicans disagree on Foreign Policy; 
the French Revolution. Very soon the two parties disagreed 
over a question of foreign policy. To understand it we must 
glance at the history of France. 

Though the Bourbon king had aided the Americans in 
their war with George III, France continued to be a relent- 
less despotism (section io6). Its rulers had no sympathy 
with free institutions. But the downtrodden French people 
were longing to be free. In the very year when Washington 
became president, wise and good men in France began the 
famous French Revolution. 

At first the Revolution was directed by these high-minded 
leaders, who felt no hatred toward the king and had wished 
to take away his power gradually. Unfortunately something 
happened which had not been foreseen : many bitter people 
who had suffered from the harsh rule of the king were unable 
to restrain their passion for revenge, and began denouncing 
the moderate Revolutionists, who wanted to change the 
government without harm to anyone. The Moderates were 
thrust aside ; and then followed a furious struggle between 
the nobles and the people. The people won. The nobles 
were either killed or driven out of the country. The poor 
king, Louis XVI, was seized and put to death, and France 
was declared a republic. 

In America these terrible events made a deep impression. 
Though at first most people felt that the French Revolution 
was almost a continuation of the American Revolution, a 
reaction came when the king was executed. At that time 
Americans did not know what terrible excuses the people of 
France had for their rage against the king, and in America 
their action seemed both cruel and vindictive. A great num- 
ber of Americans changed, for a time, their idea of the 
French nation and said, "We do not want our country to 
be a friend of the French Republic." This was the attitude 
generally of the Federalists. 



FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 223 

On the other hand, there were some Americans who with- 
out excusing the execution of the king felt that they under- 
stood why the suffering people of France had been unable to 
restrain themselves. They said, ''Let us stand by France 
and very soon we shall be glad we did so ; on second thought, 
the French will act differently." This position was taken 
by Jefferson and the Republicans. 

200. The Proclamation of Neutrality. The new French 
Republic at once became engaged in war with Prussia, 
Austria, Spain, and England. It appealed to the United 
States for aid and sent over as its ambassador a foolish man 
named Genet. The Republicans received Genet with enthu- 
siasm. Dinners were given in his honor. Speeches were 
made in which the Democratic orators assured their hearers 
that it would be shameful if the two republics did not stand 
together. But the Federalists did not take part in these 
demonstrations. They were greatly pleased because Wash- 
ington, while Genet was on his way across the ocean, had 
issued a proclamation of neutrality (1793) warning Ameri- 
cans that our country was at peace with both France and 
England and that American citizens must not commit hostile 
acts against either country. 

When Genet requested military aid from the United 
States it was promptly refused. Then Genet fitted out a 
ship which was to sail from an American port to make war 
on England. Washington forbade the sailing. Nevertheless 
the ship, under Genet's orders, sailed away. In anger Wash- 
ington exclaimed, ''Is the minister of the French Republic to 
set the acts of this government at defiance with impunity ! " 
He notified France that the insolent ambassador was no 
longer wanted in this country. France at once recalled him. 

201. The Mississippi Treaty. Genet's meddling had one 
good result. Spain became alarmed because he tried to stir 
up the Western Americans to seize New Orleans. Fearful 
that the United States would take part in the French war 



2 24 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



(section 200), Spain at last proposed a satisfactory settle- 
ment of the Mississippi question (section 190). It was ar- 
ranged (1795) that Americans might navigate the river and 
export their products free of duty through New Orleans. 

202. The Jay 
Treaty. The great 
question be fore the 
country now was, 
Should we join 
France in her war 
against England ? 
Many Republicans 
wished to do so. 
They complained 
that England had 
not fulfilled her 
obligations under 
the treaty of 17,83^ 
and that she was 
seizing American 
ships trading to 
French ports. In 
the hope of pre- 
venting war Wash- 
ington sent John 
Jay to England to 
negotiate a treaty 
of commerce. Jay accomplished three things : (i) he settled 
the disputes over the treaty of 1783 ; (2) he brought about 
the resumption of trade with England and the British West 
Indies; (3) he secured from England a promise to submit 

^ England still held Detroit and other posts inside the boundary of the 
United States. Her excuse was that we had not kept our promise to 
enable English merchants to collect debts contracted by Americans previous 
to the war. This dispute was settled by the treaty of 179S, and the forts 
were surrendered to the United States, 




GEORGE WASHINGTON 

From a painting by John Trumbull. Courtesy of 
the Daughters of the American Revolution 



FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 225 

to arbitration the claims of American merchants for losses 
they had suffered because of the interruptions of trade 
during the war/ 

203. Washington refuses a Third Term. Washington re- 
fused to be president a third time. As an answer to the 
great numbers of people who begged him to continue at the 
head of the government, he issued his Farewell Address 
(September 7, 1796). Besides explaining his own course, the 
address contains ''an appeal to the people to preserve intact 
the unity of the government, to put down party spirit, and to 
make religion, education, and public good faith the basis 
of the government, and, lastly, a needed warning against the 
admission of any foreign influence upon American politics."^ 



SUMMARY 

Washington formed a cabinet of secretaries to administer the 
new government. Its leading members were Hamilton, Secretary 
of the Treasury, and Jefferson, Secretary of State. Hamilton paid 
off the debts of the United States by means of duties on foreign 
goods and charges laid on foreign ships trading to American ports. 
He persuaded Congress to establish the Bank of the United 
States. When the French Revolution broke out Hamilton looked 
on it with distrust, while Jefferson warmly applauded. Washing- 
ton issued his Proclamation of Neutrality. There was a popular 
demand to join France in a war with England. Washington 
wished to prevent war and succeeded in doing so by negotiating 
a commercial treaty with England. He also made an arrangement 
with Spain with regard to the IMississippi. While Washington was 
contending with so many difficulties the friends of Hamilton and 
the friends of Jefferson organized themseves as political parties, 
known as the Federalists and the Republicans or Democrats. 

1 The British navy had seized American ships carrying provisions to French 
ports. As a result of Jay's negotiations we, in substance, admitted the right 
to make these seizures, while England admitted the obligation to pay for 
them. Eventually our merchants were paid for their losses. 

2 This summary is from Johnson, American Politics, p. 41. 



22 6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : Bassett, Uniled States, cliap. xii ; The Federal 
System, chaps, i-vi ; *Callkxder, Economic History of the United 
States, chap, v ; *Chan.\ing, United States, chaps, ii-vi ; Dewev, Finan- 
cial History of the United States, chaps, iii-vii ; Fess, Folitical Theory 
and Party Organization in the United States, chap, i ; Guitteau, 
Governtnent and Politics in the United States, chap, xxvii ; Hart, Con- 
temporaries, III, chap, xii; *Johnsox, Union and Democracy (Kwersidc 
History), chaps, iii, iv ; *Joxes, IVashingto/i and his Colleagues (Chron- 
icles of America); LodCtE, Alexander Hamilton; Macdonald, Source 
Book, 244-258; McMaster, History, I, chap. vi. 

For the Pupil: Barstow, The Colonists and the Revolution, 138- 
148 ;• CoNAXT, Alexander Hamilton', Ei.so.x, Sidelights on American 
History, I, chap, iv ; Faris, Makers of Our History, chap, vii ; Fiske, 
Ho70 the United States became a Nation ; Guitteau, Preparation for 
Citizenship, chaps, xiv-xvi ; Irving, Life of IVashington ; Sparks, 77/^ 
Men who made the Nation, chaps, v, vi ; Wilson, George IVashington. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. What is the cabinet? 2. Who were the chief men in Washington's 
cabinet ? 3. How did Hamilton raise money ? 4. Why did Hamilton 
want a bank? 5. Why did Jefferson and Hamilton oppose each other? 
6. What political parties did they organize ? 7. What event in France 
caused further disagreement between Federalists and Democrats ? 
8. What was the attitude generally of the Federalists toward the new 
French Republic ? of the Democrats ? | q. Write a brief essay on 
the topic 'How Political Parties began in the United States." Explain 
the differences between Hamilton and his friends, on the one hand, and 
Jefferson and his friends, on the other, with regard to (i) the power 
of ihe government, (2) the interest of the wealthy class, (3) foreign 
policy.] 

10. What proclamation did Washington issue? [11. Write a brief 
essay on neutrality. (See Chapter XXV; also Latane, From Isolation to 
Leadership ; Robinson and West, The Foreign Policy of Woodrow 
]]'ilson ; Seymour, Woodrow Wilson and the World War (Chronicles 
of America). Of course the teacher will find it necessary, if this topic 
is used, to explain the subject fully.)] 12. What reasons were given by 
the Democrats for wanting war with England? 13. How did Wash- 
ington prevent war ? 




WASHINGTON S COACH 



CHAPTER XII 



OUR COUNTRY IN WASHINGTON'S DAY 



204. The First Census. Congress ordered a count, or cen- 
sus, of the whole American people to be taken in 1790, and 
afterwards once in ten years. 

The first census showed that of all the states, Virginia had 
the largest population, 747,000 ; Pennsylvania came next 
with 434,000; North Carolina with 393,000 stood third; 
then came Massachusetts, having 378,000 ; while New York, 
which now has 10,000,000 people, stood fifth with 340,000. 

There were only five cities which had a population of over 
8000. It is interesting to compare the size of these cities 
then and now. New York in the census of 1790 had 32,305, 
and in that of 1920 had 5,620,048 ; Philadelphia had 28,522 
in 1790, and 1,823,158 in 1920; Boston in 1790 had 18,038, 
while in 1920 it had 748,060; Charleston had 16,359 in 
1790, and 67,957 in 1920; Baltimore in 1790 had i3,505> 
and in 1920 had 733,826.^ 

iThe city which in 1920 was the second in the country, Chicago, with 
a population of 2,701,705 did not exist in 1700. 

227 



2 28 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

You will notice that these five cities are on the sea or near 
the mouth of some great river. The great bulk of all our 
4,000,000 people of that time also lived along the sea. 

205. The Western Migration. During the next few years 
there was a rush of settlers to the West. From New England 
they crossed New York along the Mohawk Trail (section 22 ) 




CINCINNATI IN 1«00 



to the shores of Lake Erie. From all parts of the Middle 
States they gathered at Pittsburgh, whence they went down 
the Ohio River on flatboats. These boats were large flat 
barges with rough houses built upon them for sleeping. 
They drifted with the current. Therefore the voyage on a 
flatboat was long, and the passengers filled the tedious days 
with games and merrymaking. Between 1790 and 1800 many 
thousand people floated down the Ohio by means of these 
boats and settled in new towns or on farms both north and 
south of it. During those ten years more than a quarter of a 
million of our people crossed the mountains. An event which 



OUR COUNTRY IN WASHINGTON'S DAY 



229 



contributed greatly to this result was the crushing of the 
Ohio Indians, after much hard fighting, by General Anthony 
Wayne, whose chief victory was the battle of Fallen Timbers, 
near Maumee. 

The emigrants did not all go by way of the Ohio. A 
famous Indian trail led westward from Virginia and North 




I Harper & Brothers 



A PIONEER WEDDING 



From "Building the Nation," by Charles Carleton Coffin. Drawing by 
Howard Pyle 

Carolina, through Cumberland Gap, into Kentucky and Ten- 
nessee. Over this Wilderness Trail many settlers passed into 
the West, carrying their possessions on pack horses. There 
was a time when long strings of such horses might be seen 
following one behind the other through the shadows of the 
forest. Their drivers walked beside them. On other horses 
women were seated, sometimes with children in their arms. 
206. The Life of the Pioneers. The life led by these pio- 
neers, as the early settlers were called, was, of course, full 
of hardships. At first their houses were rude log cabins. 
A whole family had to be content to live in a single room. 



230 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

As pack horses were the only means of conveyance very 
Uttle furniture could be brought across the mountains. In 
the settlements of the frontiersmen the tables, chairs, and bed- 
steads were generally made on the spot. This was possible 
because mechanics were always to be found among the 
immigrants. None the less the furniture of their cabins was 
of the roughest sort. A table was but a rough board hewn 
smooth only on the upper side, with sections of small tree 
trunks for legs. 

For a long time these Western settlements found it diffi- 
cult to get cloth of any sort from across the mountains. The 
few traders who brought it West on their pack horses asked 
high prices. So the frontiersmen imitated Indian dress and 
often wore a fur cap, a buckskin shirt, buckskin leggings, 
and moccasins. 

207. Beginnings of Civilization in the West. Many of the 
immigrants to the West were well educated. Almost im- 
mediately they began to lay plans for the development of 
schools. In Kentucky, even before the woods were cleared, 
the settlers began planning Transylvania University, which 
was finally organized in 1798. In Ohio one thirty-sixth of 
the land was set aside to support the schools. There was a 
newspaper, the Kentucky Gazette, issued at the little town 
of Lexington when Washington was inaugurated.^ It was 
the first newspaper west of the mountains. Before the end of 
Washington's first term the first newspaper in Ohio appeared, 
the Sc?Hinel of the Northwest, published at Cincinnati. 

208. The Industrial Revolution. At the time of Washing- 
ton's election most of our manufactured articles came from 
Europe.- We had a few woolen mills, the first of which was 
established in Massachusetts as far back as 1662. There 



^In 1790 there were but 103 newspapers in the whole country; in 1920 
the number was 23,074. 

2 Many articles of household use such as candles were made in almost 
every home. These "household manufactures" disappeared soon afterwards. 



OUR COUNTRY IN WASHINGTON'S DAY 231 

were no mills in America that made cotton cloth. All our 
mills were run by water and were equipped with clumsy 
machinery. 

During the thirty years following Washington's election 
a great change took place. What is known as the Industrial 
Revolution extended from England to America. We must 
understand this far-reaching event because its effects have 
had a profound influence on American life and are today 
perhaps the most important subject for Americans to think 
about (see Chapters XXII and XXVIII). 

In the latter half of the eighteenth century England dis- 
tinguished herself in all scientific and mechanical ways by 
the number and ability of her original thinkers. A series of 
inventions abolished many of the old modes of industry and 
created others that changed gradually the conditions of labor 
all over the world. Before this time thread was spun on the 
spinning wheels and then was woven into cloth on the 
old-fashioned looms that had been invented centuries before. 
These machines worked slowly, but they were cheap, and 
poor people could own them. Almost every English cottage, 
almost every American frontier cabin, had its spinning wheel. 
If a man wanted to make weaving his trade, he would have 
little difficulty paying for his own loom. These old-time con- 
ditions of manufacture made it possible for a single weaver 
to carry on business by himself. 

But before long so many changes had come about that the 
workman could no longer run his business by himself. It was 
the unintended result of the new inventions. Machinery was 
introduced which was immeasurably more efficient than the 
old machinery, but it was also vastly more expensive. The 
workers themselves could not purchase it. Men of wealth had 
to be found who would buy this costly machinery and pay 
wages to the workmen who used it. Of the gradual but enor- 
mous results of all this in America, how they have grown into 
^'big business," we shall hear later (Chapter XXVIII). 



2 32 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




AX OLD-FASHIONED LOOM 




MODERN LOOMS IN A LARGE MILL 



209. The Cotton 
Industry. Among 
all the new inven- 
tions undoubtedly 
the most impor- 
tant was the steam 
engine, which was 
perfected by James 
Watt in 1 78 1. But 
the new inventions 
which had the most 
immediate effect 
upon America con- , 
cerned the manu- 
facture of cotton. 
We shall see here- 
after that cotton 
. has played a great 
part in our history. 
However, the home 
of cotton is Asia, 
and there for thou- 
sands of years past 
the people of India 
had made exquisite 
cloths from cotton 
by means of the 
most simple hand 
looms. Long ago 
England began im- 
porting cotton and 
manufacturing it 
into cloth in the 
same difficult way. 
Cotton culture was 



OUR COUNTRY IN WASHINGTON'S DAY 



233 



introduced into the English colonies in the seventeenth 
century. While our fathers were quarreling with the king 
over the Townshend duties (section 145), Richard Ark- 
wright invented a new spinning machine (1769) which 
was far superior to any that had been known before. How- 
ever, the spinning of cotton was still tedious and unsatis- 
factory for two reasons : ( i ) because the old-fashioned looms 
could not turn out their cloth 
rapidly and (2) because the 
cotton was full of small seeds 
that had to be picked out la- 
boriously before it could be 
spun. Two famous inventors 
one in England and one in 
America, worked at these 
difficulties about the same 
time and finally overcame 
them. In England Richard 
Cartwright invented the power 
loom, which often was run by 
steam. In America Eli Whit- 
ney, a young school-teacher 
born in Massachusetts but 
who was living in Georgia, invented the cotton gin (1793). 
Before that time cotton was grown in America but not with 
great profit. A negro working all day could pick the seeds 
out of but a pound of cotton ; by means of Whitney's gin 
the same negro could clean three hundred pounds a day, 
Whitney had been encouraged to attempt his invention by 
the widow of General Greene, at whose plantation, Mulberry 
Grove, the first gin was constructed. Even before then 
Americans had seen that the cotton industry might become 
a great source of wealth. As far back as 1775 one of the 
new spinning machines was set up at Philadelphia. Our 
first successful cotton factory was established at Pawtucket, 




ELI WHITNEY 



234 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UXl TED STATES 

Rhode Island, by Samuel Slater (1790J, who had been 
superintendent of an English factory ; he made use of some 
but not all of the recent inventions. Years passed, while 
enormous factories sprang up at many places in England, 



--4 




^^:»V.,A'»/C'^r:-^ 




A COTTON FIELD 



before Francis C. Lowell built their first American rival 
(1814) at Waltham, Massachusetts, and equipped it with 
all their new appliances. 

Both the growing and the manufacture of cotton now 
became leading industries in the United States. Because of 
the large number of mills in England and America, growers 
of cotton were able to sell at a good price all they could 
produce. Before the invention of the cotton gin we exported 
but a few hundred bales a year. In twenty years' time the 
amount exported annually had risen to 125,000 bales. Since 
then we have raised in one year as much as 16,000,000 bales. ^ 

1 There were a number of inventions made by Americans about this time 
besides cotton-gin machinery. Oliver Evans of Delaware invented the grain 
elevator (1780) and also revolutionized the manufacture of flour. Later 
he built the first steam dredge. Jacob Perkins of Massachusetts was the 
inventor of the first satisfactory machine for making nails (1790). James 



OUR COUNTRY IN WASHINGTON'S DAY 235 



210. The Schools of 1790. Few things have changed more 
since our first census than have our schools. Alexander 
Graydon of Philadelphia has preserved for us, in a book he 
wrote, a picture of the schools of Washington's day. While 
at school Graydon read 

Latin fables, learned 
ancient history, fought 
the other boys, was 
flogged by his teacher, 
and when fourteen 
years old had read 
Ovid, Vergil, Caesar, 
and Sallust, and was 
reading Horace and 
Cicero. 

Girls, as a rule, did 
not have the same edu- 
cation as boys. Most 
girls were considered 
educated when they 
had been taught how 
to keep house, how to 
embroider skillfully, 
and how to play the 
harpsichord. No girls 
went to college. 

211. Dress and Manners. Everybody who could afford it 
wore beautiful clothes — the men no less than the women. 
Gentlemen appeared on the street wearing bright-colored 

Rumsey of Maryland made the first model of a steamboat (1784). He 
was encouraged by Franklin and Washington, but died before perfecting 
his invention. John Fitch of Connecticut followed in Rumsey's steps and 
came nearer to success, but he could not persuade anyone to give him the 
money needed to make his invention successful. In 1798 he committed 
suicide, after writing in. his journal, "The day will come when some more 
powerful man will get fame and riches from my invention" (for the fulfill- 
ment of his prophecy see section 221). 




i-V Harper i Brollier! 

WASHINGTON AND HIS SERVANT 

From "Building the Nation," by Charles 
Carleton Coffin 



236 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

silk coats, embroidered waistcoats, short breeches reaching 
only to the knees, and silk stockings. On horseback they 
wore huge boots coming high up the leg. 

All respectable people were very particular in the way they 
addressed each other. If a man spoke to another in loud, 
careless tones or slapped him on the back, it was considered 
proof that he was not a gentleman. Washington particularly 
required everyone to be extremely polite. He would not 
tolerate the least display in public of what we mean today 
by " familiarity." 

212. The City of Washington. A memorial of Washington 
was the new capital of the Union. A tract of land ten miles 
square, lying on both sides of the Potomac, was placed by 
Maryland and \'irginia at the disposal of Congress. Subse- 
quently the portion south of the river was returned to Vir- 
ginia. The remainder still forms the District of Columbia, for 
which Congress makes all the laws, local as well as national. 
In this little district was laid out the new city of Washington, 
now one of the most beautiful cities in the world. 



SUMMARY 

Our first census, in 1790, showed that we numbered 4,000,000. 
We still lived in the country or in small towns. The largest city. 
New York, had only 32,305 inhabitants. During Washington's 
time began a great shifting of population from the Atlantic sea- 
board to the West. Many pioneer communities were established 
beyond the mountains, where life was rough and free. At the 
same time a new opportunity to make money was created in the 
older parts of the country by the Industrial Revolution, which, 
starting in England, spread all over the world and changed the con- 
ditions of labor everywhere. New machines were invented that 
only rich men could buy. Factories became necessary. Before 
long men of wealth in America were imitating the men of wealth 
in Europe and putting their fortunes into factories. One result of 
these new conditions was the development of the American cotton 



OUR COUNTRY IN WASHINGTON'S DAY 237 

industry. This industry was revolutionized by the invention of 
the cotton gin in 1793 ^^^ by the invention of the power loom. 

American life, however, except in the West, did not undergo 
any rapid change. Boys and girls were educated according to 
old notions very different from those of today. Men as well as 
women, if they could afford to do so, wore silk and satin clothes. 

Washington's name was given to the new capital of the Union. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : * Adams, Histoiy of the United States, I, chaps, i-iv ; 
Babcock, The Rise of Americati Nationality, chap, xv ; Bassett, United 
States (chap, xvi) and The Federalist Syste^n (chaps, x-xiii); Bogart, 
Eco/iotnic Histojy, chaps, xi-xiv ; Callender, Economic Histoiy, chaps, v, 
ix, xii ; Channing, United States, IV, chap, xvi ; Cheyney, Industrial and 
Social History of England, chap, viii ; *Coman, Industrial History of 
the United States; Guitteau, Goiiermnent and Politics, chap, viii; 
Hammond, Coitott Industry ; Hart, Contemporaries, II, chap, xxii ; 
III, chaps, ii, v, xxi ; Hinsdale, TJie Old Northwest; *Mc]VIaster, 
History, II, chap, xii; III, chaps, xxi, xxii; *OsGOOD, Hisfo?y of Indus- 
try, chaps, xii, xiii, xvii ; Rhodes, History of the United States, I, chaps. 
i, ii, iv ; Roosevelt, The Winning of the litest; Smedes, Memorials of 
a Southern Planter; *Turxer, Rise of the Neiv West, chaps, v-viii ; 
Webster, History of Commerce, chap. ii. 

For the Pupil: Baldwin, Conquest of the Old Northwest, 177-194; 
Barstow, The Westward Movement (1-80) and A New Nation (166- 
180); 'Qa5S, Sto7-ies of Pioneer Life, 54-136; Brigham, Fiom Trail to 
Railway, chap, ii ; Bruce, Daniel Boone and the IVilderness Road; 
Drake, The Making of the'Great West; Elson, Sidelights on Americati 
History, I ; Faris, Real Stories from Otir History (chaps, xiv, xv, 
xvii-xix) and Makers of Ottr History (chap, ix) ; Gordy, Abraham Lincoln, 
chap, i ; McMvRRY, Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley ; Morgan, Lincoln, 
the Boy and the Man, chaps, i-v; NicOLAY, Our Nation in the Building, 
chap, vi ; Paxson, The Last American Frotitier,c\\3.^s.\-\'v; Roosevelt, 
Stories of the Great West; Sparks, Expansion of the American People, 
chaps, iii, x ; Wright, American Progress, chap. i. 



238 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. How many people were in our country when the first census was 
taken? 2. Where did most of the people live in 1790? '3. What 
great movement of population then began ? [4. Draw a map showing 
the chief routes across the mountains that were in use in Washington's 
day and what part of the West was settled before 1800. (See sections 
141, 186-188, 190, 205, and maps on pages 193 and 211 ; also Brigham, 
From Trail to Railway ; Semple, Geographic Cojiditions, chaps, iv, v. 
Either on the map or on a separate sheet tell just where you found the 
information used ; for example, the Mohawk Trail, section 205, and map, 
p. 211.)] [5. Imagine yourself a Western settler in 1790 or 1795. 
Write a letter describing your westward journey (a) over the Mohawk 
Trail, {b) by way of the Ohio, or (c) over the Wilderness Trail. (See 
McMaster, History, chap, viii ; Ogg, The Old Northwest, chaps, vi, vii ; 
Semple, Geographic Conditions, chaps, iv, v ; Skinner, Pioneers of the 
Old Southwest, chap, ii ; Turner, The Frontier in American History, 
126-176.)] 

[6. Write another letter dated a year later, describing the settlement 
where you live and how it w'as besieged by Indians. (See Bass, 
Stories of Pioiieer Life, 54-136 ; Roosevelt, Winnifig of the West, I, 
chap. V ; Semple, Geographic Conditiojis, chap, v ; Ogg, The Old North- 
west, chaps. V, vii ; Skinner, Pioneers of the Old Southwest, chaps, 
vii, X, xi.)] 7. What was the earliest Western University? 8. How 
did Ohio support schools ? 9. What were the onief occupations in 
America when Washington became president ? la. What great change 
took place during the next thirty years ? 

[11. Explain how the Industrial Revolution chartged the relations of 
capital and labor. (See Chapters XXII and XxVjII ; Bogart, Eco- 
nomic History, chaps, xxix, xxxii ; Callender, Economic History, chap, 
xiv; Orth, The Armies of Labor, chaps, i, ii.)] 12. What new inven- 
tions were most important to the Americans? 13. How did the new 
inventions change the American cotton industry? 14. What other 
American inventions were made about this time ? 



:aararaCTaCTQraaaHg^c^^[ar^raTOos7iF'JCTE^oaoCTaCTg 




TIGHT BETWEEN THE CONSTELLATION k^^ VINSURGENTE 



CHAPTER XIII 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 



JOHN ADAMS, SECOND PRESIDENT 

213. Party Politics; Contest over Washington's Successor. 
As soon as it became known that Washington would not 
accept a third term the two political parties (section 198) 
began our first national campaign for the election of a 
president. 

The Federalists' candidate was John Adams, who had been 
vice president during both terms when Washington was 
president. The Republicans nominated Jefferson. Adams 
was elected.^ 

214. "X, Y, Z"; the Naval War. The French government 
at this time was controlled by five unscrupulous men called 
the Directory. They had it in their power to make war upon 
us, and they secretly informed our minister at Paris that 

1 The law provided that the candidate receiving the next highest number of 
votes should be vice president ; therefore, while Adams was president, Jefferson 
was vice president. The twelfth amendment (1804) to the Constitution pro- 
vided that the president and vice president should be voted for separately. 

239 



240 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

if we wished them to be our friends we had better pay each 
of them a great sum of money. They intended to keep the 
whole disgraceful negotiation a secret, but when it was re- 
ported to President Adams he at once made it public (1797 ). 
Instead of giving the names of three lower officers who were 
go-betweens, carrying the proposal of the Directory to our 
minister, he spoke of them as Mr. X, Mr. Y, and Mr. Z. 

When President Adams denounced this treatment of our 
ministers he was applauded by the whole country. John Hop- 
kinson composed ''Hail Columbia" in his honor. The gen- 
eral feeling was expressed by a remark attributed to C. C. 
Pinckney: "Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute." 

There followed what is sometimes called the naval war 
of 1798. French and American ships of war fought several 
brilliant engagements. Commodore Truxton in the frigate 
Constellation made a great reputation by capturing the 
French frigate L'Insurgente (1799). The next year Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, who had overthrown the Directory and was 
now master of France, made peace with the United States. 

215. Alien and Sedition Laws. Duringour dispute with the 
Directory there were a number of Frenchmen editing news- 
papers in America. Forgetting what was due the generous 
government which permitted them to make their fortunes 
here while continuing citizens of another country,^ they 
abused the president shamelessly. To make it possible to 
silence such people Congress passed the Alien Law (1798), 
which empowered the president to order offending foreigners 
out of the country. At the same time a Sedition Law pro- 
vided for the punishment of any American citizen who pub- 
lished false statements about the government. No aliens 
were banished, but several Americans. were fined, and one 
was sent to prison. These laws were in force only two years. 

iThis is the same problem of the unscrupulous alien, who tries to in- 
fluence American opinion in the interests not of the United States but of his 
own country, that came up again during the World War (see Chapter XXIV). 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 241 

216. The Power of the Supreme Court ; John Marshall. The 

Republicans thought they saw in these laws an attempt to 
give the president the powers of a monarch (section 134). 
Resolutions of protest were passed by the legislatures of 
Kentucky and Virginia. These resolutions also laid down 
a principle that was accepted by the Republicans as part 
of what we should call today their "party platform." This 
was the idea, that if a state thought an act of Congress im- 
proper it had a right to refuse to obey that act. The Fed- 
eralists replied that only the Supreme Court should pass 
judgment whether Congress was or was not acting in accord- 
ance with the Constitution, and that the states had no choice 
but to obey the court. However, they saw that the question 
was going to become a source of dispute in politics, and they 
wanted as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court a man of 
great courage and ability who would assert the authority 
of the court at every opportunity. Such a man was John 
Marshall of Virginia, whom Adams appointed Chief Justice 
only a few weeks before retiring from the presidency. As 
the Chief Justice holds office for life, Marshall was able dur- 
ing nearly thirty-five years to oppose Republican ideas and 
uphold the Federalist conception of the powers of Congress. 
More than any other one man he helped to establish the 
idea that the state government did not have the right to 
pass judgment upon the lawfulness of an act of Congress 
and that this right belonged to the. Supreme Court. 

217. The Death of Washington. In the latter part of 
Adams's administration Washington died at Mount Vernon 
(1799). There was now full appreciation of his splendid 
services to the country, and he was mourned by the whole 
nation as ''first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of 
his countrymen." So general was now the recognition of 
his greatness that an English admiral. Lord Bridport, com- 
manding a fleet of sixty ships off the English coast, ordered 
all his flags at half-mast. 



242 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



THOMAS JEFFERSON, THIRD PRESIDENT 

218. The Election of 1800 ; Jefferson the First President 
inaugurated at Washington; "Republican Simplicity." In the 
election of 1800 Adams and Jefferson were again the 

presidential can- 
didates, but this 
time the Repub- 
licans won the 
election and Jef- 
ferson became 
president. He was 
inaugurated in the 
city of Washing- 
ton, which had 
become the capi- 
tal of our country 
the year previous. 
Jefferson was an 
ardent believer in 
what was called re- 
publican simplic- 
ity. He did not 
want.aspresident, 
to make himself 
different from his 
fellow citizens. 
He walked to his 
inauguration as if he were walking down town on an ordi- 
nary errand. Frequently, in later years, he went to the 
Capitol on horseback and himself tied his horse to a hitching 
post. He is described as ''a tall man, with a very red, freckled 
face; his manners good-natured, frank, and rather friendly; 
wearing a blue coat, a thick gray-colored heavy waistcoat, 
with a red under-waistcoat lapped over it, green velveteen 




THOMAS JEFFERSON 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 243 

breeches with pearl buttons, yarn stockings, and slippers 
down at the heels — his appearance being very much like 
that of a tall, large-boned farmer." 

Jefferson was highly accomplished, and people who talked 
with him found him very charming. He was rich, with a 
great estate in Virginia called Monticello, where he enter- 
tained most attractively. A visitor there said of him that 
he was '^at once a musician ... an astronomer, a natural 
philosopher, and a statesman." 

In Jefferson's day, in most parts of the country, no one 
could vote unless he had considerable property. The Feder- 
alists thought this was right. Jefferson opposed it. All his 
life long he urged his countrymen to adopt '^ manhood suf- 
frage" — that is, to allow all men to vote, whether rich or poor. 
Fifty years later, after long debate upon the subject, '^man- 
hood suffrage" became the rule in America (section 257). 
This was due in large measure to the influence of Jefferson. 

219. War with Tripoli. Though Jefferson was a devoted 
believer in peace, he was forced into war with Tripoli. The 
Mohammedan states of northern Africa had long made a 
business of piracy. The greater countries of the world 
thought it cheaper to buy them off than to fight them. Hith- 
erto we had done the same. But now the ruler of Tripoli 
became insolent, demanded a higher price for not robbing 
our ships, and when it was refused, declared war.^ There- 
upon Jefferson sent the American navy to the Mediterranean 
and forced the Tripolitans to beg for mercy. They made a 
treaty promising never again to molest our ships. 

220. The Revival of the Dispute about the Mississippi ; the 
Louisiana Purchase. Meanwhile Napoleon, having compelled 

1 American seamen — among them Barry, Bainbridge, Decatur, Preble, 
arid Truxton — won great distinction. Perhaps the most brilliant naval 
exploit was Stephen Decatur's raid into the harbor of Tripoli, where he 
destroyed a captured frigate, the Philadelphia. There have been few more 
daring things in history than the land attack on Derne by William Eaton 
(see Whittier's poem "Derne" and Johnson's "Jefferson and his Colleagues"). 



244 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Spain to return Louisiana to France (section 123), prepared 
a great army to take possession of it. Americans were in- 
formed that they would no longer be allowed to do business 

unhindered at New Orleans 
(section 201). 

Napoleon was the greatest 
general in the world, and he 
had at hisback an immensely 
powerful army. All our 
people felt that if this great 
conqueror took possession 
of New Orleans, there was 
no telling what harm he 
might do to our country. 
Jefferson, though he loved 
the French people, at once 
prepared, if necessary, to 
make an alliance with Eng- 
land and fight Napoleon. 
''The day France takes pos- 
session of New Orleans," he 
wrote, ''we marry ourselves 
to the British fleet and 
nation." 

At the same time Jefferson 
attempted to make a bargain 
with Napoleon. He sent James Monroe and Robert Liv- 
ingston to see whether New Orleans could be purchased. 
Napoleon astonished them by telling them he had changed 
his mind, did not want Louisiana, and would sell it all. They 
promptly agreed to buy. The price paid was fifteen million 
dollars. "I have sold you," said Napoleon, "the key to 
your country."^ 




SACAJAWEA 

The Indian woman who was guide 

for Lewis and Clark. This statue is 

at Portland, Oregon 



^ Napoleon was about to declare war upon England, and was afraid 
the British fleet would seize Louisiana. He said to his ministers, "I have 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 



245 



221. Exploration of the West ; Lewis and Clark ; the Steam- 
boat. The Americans knew almost nothing about Louisiana. 
To explore it Jefferson sent out a party of forty men com- 
manded by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Starting 
from St. Louis (May 14, 1804), they went up the Missouri 
River, crossed the Rocky Mountains to the Columbia River, 




FULTON S STEAMBOAT, THE CLERMONT 

which they descended to the Pacific (November 7, 1805).^ 
The expedition returned to St. Louis two and a half years 
after leaving it. 

The next year Zebulon M. Pike set out to explore the 
Rocky Mountains. He discovered the great peak which 
bears his name ; after severe hardships he made his way 
home in a roundabout way through Texas. He wrote a 
popular book describing his travels. 

These explorations showed us that our Western territory 
was enormous. How to settle it was a problem. Fortunately 
a new invention made possible the transportation of settlers 

not a minute to lose in selling Louisiana to America in order to keep it out 
of the hands of England." The territory thus acquired embraced 560,000,000 
acres, or some 900,000 square miles (see map of the United States in 1810). 
It cost us about three cents an acre. 

^This river had been visited by an American seaman, Captain Asa Gray, 
in 1792. His visit and the expedition of Lewis and Clark gave us a claim 
to the valley of the Columbia. Our first settlement on the Pacific was. 
Astoria, built by fur-traders (1811) in the employ of John Jacob Astor, 
J:hen the richest man in the United States. 



246 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and freight with perfect ease along the numberless rivers 
of the Western country.^ This was the steamboat (p. 235, 
note). The first entirely practical steamboat, the Clermont, 
was built by Robert Fulton. His first trip was from New 
York City to Albany (1807). The astonishment of the 
crowds of people gathered along the shore can hardly be 
exaggerated. Fulton had been ridiculed for building the 
Clermont, which had been nicknamed Fulton's Folly. At 
once people saw the value of this invention to the Westerners. 
Soon a Western steamboat made its first trip on the Ohio 
(181 1 ). Before long there were steamboat lines up and 
down all the great rivers of the West." 

222. Results of the Westward Movement; Ohio Admitted; 
"Burr's Conspiracy"; Louisiana Admitted. Very rapidly 
settlers poured into the West. As one result, Ohio was cut 
off from the rest of the Northwest Territory and made a 
state of the L^nion (1803). Another result of this rapid 
movement of population toward the West was a strange 
scheme of Aaron Burr's.' He thought that the Westerners 

lYou will remember that the flatboat (section loo) could not be moved 
upstream. When a flatboat reached the end of its voyage it was broken 
up and sold as lumber. Thus, while the Westerners, before steamboats 
came into use, could float their exports downstream on flatboats, all their 
imports had still to be brought to them on pack horses through the forest. 

2 Not many years passed before ocean-going boats were built. The first 
to cross the Atlantic was the Savannah, from Savannah to England (1810), 
but it was not until twenty years later that an English company established 
the first regular steamship line across the ocean (1838). 

3 Burr was one of the most brilliant men of his time and one of the worst. 
He was vice president during Jefferson's first term. Later he was defeated 
as candidate for governor of New York. Hamilton was one of his most 
bitter opponents. In revenge Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel. At this 
time most men thought dueling was a proper mode of settling disputes. 
Hamilton did /lot hold this view, but thought that if he refused the challenge 
people would think him a coward and he would lose influence. However,, 
the idea of killing a man in cold blood disgusted him. When the enemies 
met, Hamilton fired in the air; Burr, who had been practicing marksmanship 
for this express purpose, shot him dead. Dueling continued to be practiced 
for about half a century. 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 247 

were so far from the coast and of such independent character 
(section 191) that it would be easy to persuade them to 
leave the Union and set up a Western republic of their 
own. Whether he ever tried to put this idea into practice 
we do not centainly know. Many people at the time thought 
he intended to do so. When Burr made a journey to the 
West, President Jefferson grew suspicious. When he heard 
that Burr was gathering armed men and building boats at 
Blennerhassett's Island in the Ohio River, Jefferson felt 
convinced and sent orders to have him arrested on the 
charge of treason. Though Burr and his men made their 
way down the Ohio and the Mississippi as far as Natchez, 
he was at last caught and sent East for trial. There was no 
real proof that he intended to raise a rebellion, and he was 
set free. 

As a third result of the Western movement of population 
the lower part of the new territory was cut off from the rest 
and made into the state of Louisiana (1812). 

WE ARE DRAWN INTO THE WARS OF NAPOLEON 

223. Position of Napoleon in the History of the World. 
There have been a few men so great and so powerful that 
during their lives their influence has been felt in every 
country of the world. Their deeds are part of the history 
of all countries. One of these men was Napoleon the Great. 
He was a poor Corsican boy who went to France, became a 
soldier, rose by degrees to the command of the army, over- 
threw the French Republic (section 199), and at last made 
himself emperor (1809). 

From one reason or another all the nations of Europe felt 
that Napoleon was their enemy. They formed coalitions, or 
armed leagues, against him, in which the chief powers were 
Austria, Russia, and England. England fought him mainly 
on the sea. As Napoleon announced that he would conquer 
the world, his enemies in Europe felt that every nation, 



248 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

including the United States, ought to help them resist him. 
When we refused to do so they felt and said bitter things. 

224. The Problem of Runaway Sailors; England asserts 
the Right of Impressment; the Chesapeake. ]Many sailors 
deserted from the British navy and found ernployment on 
American ships. England demanded the right to search our 
ships, and if these men were found, to 'impress" them and 
take them home. In spite of our protests she did so. There 
is no doubt that in some cases mistakes were made and 
Americans were carried off in the belief that they were 
Englishmen trying to deceive their own country.^ 

British ships of war sailed along the American coast 
watching for American ships to search. One day the Brit- 
ish ship Leopard met the American frigate Chesapeake, 
which did not have its guns in condition to use. The Brit- 
ish commander fired on the Chesapeake and forced it to 
submit to search. Four of the crew were taken off, one of 
whom was hanged as a deserter. The three others, Ameri- 
cans, were finally released. 

225. Anger over the Chesapeake; the Embargo. The whole 
country clamored for war, but Jefferson thought he could 
settle the difficulty in a very different way. He reasoned that 
neither England nor France could get along without food 
from America. Therefore he proposed to Congress to stop 
all our trade with the rest of the world, thinking that the 
great belligerents would soon grant anything we asked in 
order to have trade with America resumed. Congress acted 
on this advice and laid an embargo, or prohibition, on all 
American ships which forbade them to go to sea (1807)." 

^It is a shameful episode, and both sides were much to blame. The 
British excused themselves on the ground that we issued fraudulent naturali- 
zation papers to their deserters. Unfortunately this was true. It will 
probably never be known how many of the impressed sailors were genuine 
American citizens and how many were deserters. 

2 The embargo was aimed at both England and France because Napoleon 
had offended us by insisting on impressment no less than England did, 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 249 

But our governmeilt had misunderstood the importance to 
Europe of American trade. Neither England nor Napoleon 
would make concessions. Our ships lay useless at their 
wharves. Their owners became impoverished and thousands 
of people were thrown out of employment. The distress was 
most severe in New England, where a rebellion against the 
government seemed possible. At last the embargo was re- 
pealed and American ships, while still forbidden to trade with 
France or England, were given permission to resume trade 
with other countries (1809). This was done by a Noninter- 
course Act, which was passed by Congress in the closing 
days of Jefferson's administration, 

JAMES MADISON, FOURTH PRESIDENT 

226. Madison tries to play off England and France One 
against Another. After serving two terms Jefferson was 
succeeded by another famous Virginian, James Madison, 
who was also a Republican. The struggle between Napoleon 
and the coalitions (section 223) was now at its height. Both 
sides were indignant at our country for not taking part; 
both seized and searched our ships. At length Madison 
proposed to the belligerents that if either side would cease to 
interfere with American commerce, we, in return, would 
agree to trade with that one and not with the other.^ 

227. We fall into Napoleon's Trap. Napoleon saw his 
chance to trick us into war with England. He gave Madi- 
son a promise to meet his wishes about commerce while 
secretly not intending to do so. Madison, on the other hand, 
lived up to the offer he had made. He issued a proclamation 
informing the Americans of Napoleon's friendship and for- 
bidding them to trade with England (February 2, 181 1). 

though he did not practice it as successfully. Furthermore, each country 
interfered in many ways with trade to the other. See McMaster, "History," 
Vol. II, and Johnson, "Jefferson and his Colleagues." 

^He was authorized to do so by an act of Congress passed in 1810, 
known as Macon's Bill No. 2. 



2 50 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




SCALE OF MILES 



THE WAR IN THE EAST 



228. Tecumseh : the War of 1812. Just at this time a very 
able Indian, Tecumseh, stepped forward as the leader of his 

people against 
the whites. In 
the Northwest* 
we were press- 
ing the Indians 
back and seizing 
their lands upon 
very slight ex- 
cuse. Tecumseh 
attempted to or- 
ganize a great 
Indian confed- 
eracy, but this 
was made impos- 
sible by General William Henry Harrison, who invaded the 
Indian country and at Tippecanoe Creek won a famous 
victory (November 7, 181 1). 
A group of young politicians 
called the war hawks raised 
a great outcry over this In- 
dian war.^ They were wholly 
deceived by Napoleon ; they 
bitterly resented the treatment 
of our ships by the British 
navy and thought that Tecum- 
seh had received aid from 
Canada. Yielding to the war 
hawks, Congress declared war 
(June 18, 1812). 

At that very moment the British government was pre- 
paring to concede everything demanded by the Americans, 

' The leading war hawks were Henry Clay of Kentucky, FelLx Grundy of 
Tennessee, and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. 




SCALE OF MILES 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTHWEST 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 



251 



but when news arrived in Washington that England would 
agree to all our demands it was too late, and the war began. 
229. The War of 1812 on Land. On 
land the War of 181 2 was a series of 
raids. Several times the Americans 
entered Canada. Twice we gained 
notable victories — at the battle of the 
Thames, under General Harrison 
(1813), and at Lundy's Lane, under 
General Jacob Brown and General 
Winfield Scott (1814). 

A shameful incident of one of the 

American raids — the burning of the 

Parliament House at Toronto (1813) — was as shamefully 

avenged by a British army the next year. Landing from a 




THE BATTLE OF 
TIPPECANOE 



X ♦ 

cN^ 


^^'"'^.^iJ^cHi^ '^ ^ 


ft 


^^BatiUof LAKE 
f Lake hrie fv 


_p^.,.„ ^St^.^^ 





h/ I 0/ 


, , , .SCALE or M.LES 




THE WAR IN THE NORTHWEST 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 



fleet in Chesapeake Bay, four thousand men marched to 
Washington, scattered a militia force at Bladensburg, set 
fire to the capital, and made good their escape.^ 

^This is the first great instance in our history of reprisal. Today the 
drift of the world's thinking is against the idea of reprisal — the idea that 
you are free in war to do to your enemy the same evil that your enemy 
does to you. 



252 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The same army and the same fleet made an unsuccessful 
attack upon Baltimore. While the British were vainly bom- 
barding Fort McHenry a prisoner on one of their ships, 
Francis Scott Key, composed the "Star-Spangled Banner." 




JACKSON AT THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS 

Another British raid came down the west shore of Lake 
Champlain accompanied by a fleet. At Plattsburg ( Septem- 
ber II, 1 8 14) Captain Thomas MacDonough destroyed the 
fleet, though it was double the strength of his own, and 
compelled the army to retreat. 

The one great land battle was fought at New Orleans. 
Ten thousand British veterans landed eight miles below the 
city. General Andrew Jackson ' commanded the Americans, 

1 Jackson had lately distinguished himself in a furious border war with 
the Creek Indians, who massacred the garrison of Fort Mimms (1813). In 
the battle of Tohopeka, Jackson broke the strength of the Creeks (1814). 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 



2 53 



who, though but half as numerous as the invaders, were 
posted behind strong fortifications. The attempt of the 
British to storm the fortifications caused a terrible slaughter 
and ended in complete failure (January 8, 1815). 

230. The War of 1812 on the Water. The American navy 
won imperishable honor in the War of 181 2. In addition to 
MacDonough's battle of 
Plattsburg, the inland waters 
saw another victory. In the 
battle of Lake Erie, Oliver 
Hazard Perry destroyed a 
British fleet. He announced 
his success in words that 
everyone remembers, ^^We 
have met the enemy and they 
are ours." On the ocean, to 
the astonishment of the world, 
American ships proved to be 
the finest afloat. Two months 
after war was declared the 
American frigate Constitution 
met the British frigate Guer- 

riere^ in the North Atlantic. '^In less than thirty minutes 
from the time we got alongside," reported Captain Isaac Hull 
of the Constitution^^ "she was left without a spar standing, 
and the hull cut to pieces in such a manner as tq make it diffi- 
cult to keep her above water." This great fight was but one 
of a number of brilliant sea duels. Many British merchant- 
men were captured by the swift-sailing American ships, 
whose excellence was so undeniable that the London Times 
described them, when pursued, as putting ''on their sea 
wings" and laughing at their ''clumsy English pursuers." 

1 Formerly a French ship; she had been captured by the British. The 
name means "warrior." 

2 This famous ship was nicknamed Old Ironsides. See Holmes's poem 
with that title. 




THE FRIGATE CONSTITUTION 



254 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

231. The Treaty of Ghent. After two years of fighting both 
sides were tired of the war. Both appointed commissioners, 
who met in the quaint old city of Ghent in Belgium to nego- 
tiate a treaty. By this time Napoleon had been driven from 
his throne by the armies of the coalition (section 223), and 




A FIGHT AT SEA IN THE WAR OF 1812 



there was peace in Europe. The British and American com- 
missioners signed a treaty of peace December 14, 1814.'^ The 
treaty was little more than an agreement to stop fighting and 
become friends. Nothing was said about the quarrels which 
brought on the war. Americans realized that they had been 
tricked into the war by Napoleon, and Englishmen realized 
that they had been harsh and unfair. The two nations, like 
two men who had lost their tempers and now regretted it, 
shook hands — so to speak — and made up. 

^The batUe of New Orleans (section 229) was fought two weeks later. 
News of the signing reached the United States in February, 1815. 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 



255 



JAMES MONROE, FIFTH PRESIDENT 

232. Madison is succeeded by Monroe; the Agreement of 
1817. The close of the war caused great rejoicing, in the 
midst of which the Republicans once more elected a 
president. Again the new 
president was a Virginian, 
James Monroe. 

Monroe had been Secre- 
tary of State under Madison, 
and even before he became 
president he had tried to 
bind the two countries in 
some sort of" agreement that 
would insure peace for the 
future. One of the earliest of 
his important acts as presi- 
dent was to approve the 
agreement of 181 7, which 
pledged both countries not 
to maintain any ships of war 
on the Great Lakes. The 
agreement is still in force. 
Because of it our great cities on the Lakes — Buffalo, Cleve- 
land, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee, Duluth — feel perfectly 
secure without either forts or warships to protect them. 

233. The Cooperation of England and America in establish- 
ing the Monroe Doctrine. The return of good feeling in both 
countries was shown by a step which they took together. 

The Spanish colonies in Central and South America had re- 
volted and declared themselves independent republics ; there- 
upon a league of European monarchs called the Holy Alliance^ 

^The sovereigns of Europe were afraid that the peoples of Europe would 
make another attempt to destroy monarchy. Shortly after the overthrow of 
Napoleon, Russia, Austria, and Prussia had formed the Holy Alliance, with 
a view to combating every movement toward democracy. 




JAMES MONROE 



256 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

promised the king of Spain to conquer these new republics 
and give them back to him. England protested, and asked 
the United States also to oppose the Holy Alliance. After 
a little hesitation Monroe decided to do so, though it was 
possible that a great war might follow in which England and 
the United States would be on one side and most of Europe 
on the other. What came to be known as the Monroe Doc- 
trine was contained in a famous message which he sent to 
Congress (1823) asserting four things: (i) that no Euro- 
pean power should plant any new colonies in either North 
or South America; (2) that the United States would not, 
however, object to European nations retaining those colonies 
which they had planted in America long before and which 
they still held; (3) that the United States would not inter- 
fere in the political affairs of Europe ; (4) that no European 
power could be allowed to interfere in the political affairs 
of an American republic. 

Nearly a hundred years have passed, and all this while the 
United States has steadily asserted the Monroe Doctrine. 
England, with her immense fleet, has almost always done 
the same. As a result, the conquest of an American republic 
by a European power has never been attempted but once. 
That one attempt ended in disaster.' 

234. Our Boundaries Defined; Florida Acquired. It had 
not been determined just what territory France had ceded 
to the United States under the name of Louisiana. With 
regard to our boundaries Monroe accomplished three things : 

1 . The northern boundary was now fixed by a treaty with 
England (181 8) at the forty-ninth parallel, from the Lake 
of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains. 

2. By a treaty with Spain (1819) Monroe fixed the west- 
ern boundary; it followed the Rocky Mountains and the 
Arkansas and Sabine Rivers. 

1 See section 332 for the attempt of Napoleon III to set up an empire in 
Mexico. 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 257 

3. By the Spanish treaty we were also given the whole 
shore of the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi. We 
paid Spain five million dollars/ 

235. The Division between North and South; the Missouri 
Compromise. In Monroe's time our country was startled by 
the sudden evidence that the two parts of it, the North and 
the South, had conflicting interests. In the sixty years 
since the close of the wars for existence the two sections had 
developed in different ways' and now had distinctly different 
points of view. Northerners had gone westward and settled 
in that northwest territory where slavery was forever prohib- 
ited (section 185). Southerners who went thither left their 
slaves behind. In three new states that had been admitted 
to the Union — Ohio (1803), Indiana (1816), Illinois 
(1818) — it was illegal to hold slaves. Consequently South- 
erners who wished to go West but who also wished to retain 
their slaves had turned to the Louisiana territory, where 
slavery had never been prohibited. In 181 9 slaveholding 
settlers in the rich lands around St. Louis applied to Con- 
gress for permission to form a state. Thereupon broke out 
a furious debate upon the right or wrong of slavery. Many 
Northerners pronounced it a crime and taunted the South- 
erners with sending missionaries to Africa, while bringing 

1 Previously we came very near to a war with Spain. The Seminole In- 
dians in Florida raided the Georgia settlements. General Jackson pursued them 
into Spanish territory and captured Pensacola (1818). Many years afterwards 
(1835) the famous Osceola roused the Indians to begin the second Seminole 
war, which ended in the removal of the Seminoles to the Indian Territory. 

-See sections 131-133 for the contrast of North and South in the eight- 
eenth century. Since then the North had become more and more industrial, 
the South more and more agricultural. The Middle States were now more 
close to New England in feeling (section 133) and less sympathetic with the 
South than ever. Life in the South had not greatly changed since 1763. 
In the North, on the other hand, two changes had taken place. All the states 
north of Maryland at various times previous to 1S05 had abohshed slavery. 
The break-up of many great fortunes during the Revolutionary War had 
thrown political power into the hands of the populace. For the dispute 
between North and South over the Protective Tariff see sections 241, 242. 



2 58 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Africans to America to be slaves. The Southerners replied 
that the slaves were brought over in Northern ships and 
that many Northerners made fortunes out of the trade/ 

So much feeling was shown during this debate and such 
bitter things were said that it is a wonder the two sides ever 




THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE OF 1820 

came to an agreement, but Clay, who had marvelous skill 
in managing men, at last persuaded them to adopt the Mis- 
souri Compromise: (i) Missouri was allowed to come in 
as a slave state; (2) slavery was forever prohibited in all 
other parts of the Louisiana territory north of the parallel 
36° 30', which is INIissouri's southern boundary; (3) at the 
same time Maine was admitted as a free state to offset" 



1 Between 1783 and 1807 (see p. 214, note) 39,000 negroes were brought 
into the one port of Charleston. Among the importers of these poor 
creatures were thirteen Charlestonians and eighty-eight Rhode Islanders. 

2 The admission of Mississippi (1817) and Alabama (early in 1819) had 
made the number of free states the same as the number of slave states. The 
dispute over Missouri led the free-state men to insist that if a new 
state was added to the South, a corresponding addition must be made to 
the North. Massachusetts gave consent to the separation of its district of 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 259 

Missouri. Thus the division of our country into two sec- 
tions, which had been taking place gradually during two 
hundred years, was established by law. 

236. New Interest in the West; Steamboats; the National 
Road. The excitement over Missouri died as suddenly as 
it was born. People thought that the Compromise settled 
things ''forever" and therefore dismissed it from their 
thoughts. They turned their attention to the settlement of 
the West. A great part of the West could now be reached by 
steamboats. To be sure, these steamboats were very slow ; 
the voyage upstream from New Orleans to Louisville, at the 
falls of the Ohio, took twenty-five days. However, at the 
time of Monroe's second election between seventy and eighty 
steamboats were carrying freight and passengers up and 
down the Mississippi and its larger tributaries. 

But there was a great region lying between the Ohio and 
the Lakes where the rivers were too small for steamboats 
to be used. Toward this region settlers were moving in large 
numbers from all parts of the East. Sometimes the whole 
population of an Eastern village "went out West" in a 
single party. One day, on a road in western New York, 
a traveler met twenty wagons and one hundred and sixteen 
persons all on their way to Indiana from one little town 
in Maine. 

To enable settlers to reach the interior of this rich north- 
western country, Congress decided to build a "National 
Road," which started from Cumberland in Maryland, 
crossed the mountains through southwestern Pennsylvania to 
Wheeling in what is now West Virginia, and was to lead 
thence across Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to the Mississippi.^ 

Maine (section 62) and its admission as a state. From this time, until 1850 
(see section 305), states were regularly admitted in pairs, one slave and one 
free. The purpose was to keep the sections balanced in the Senate. 

^The National Road was opened to Wheeling in 1823 and rapidly com- 
pleted across Ohio and Indiana, but it never reached the Mississippi, because 
work on it was discontinued when railroads were introduced. 



26o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



237. Travel to the West. On all the roads leading to the 
West, both North and South, the travel at this time was 
enormous. A traveler who went from Nashville to Georgia 
tells us that he counted three thousand people, driving 
herds of cattle and hogs, who were all going out to settle in 
Alabama. In the one year 1820 three thousand wagons came 




THE CUMBERLAND, OR NATIONAL, ROAD 

to Pittsburgh from the East carrying eighteen million dol- 
lars' worth of merchandise, which was to be sent on to all 
parts of the West. 

238. The Erie Canal. And now something happened which 
shows what a great part geography plays in determining 
the prosperity of countries and cities. The state of New 
York determined to build a canal that should connect the 
Atlantic with the Great Lakes. It was possible to do this 
because the mountains that form a great barrier right across 
Pennsylvania flatten out into low hills across New York. 
Each of these states saw that a canal connecting the coast 
with the West would greatly increase its prosperity. Each 
attempted to build one. But in Pennsylvania the mountains 
proved to be too great an obstacle, and the plan for a canal 
had to be given up. 

Even New York's canal proved to be a difficult under- 
taking. The distance between Albany and Lake Erie is 
363 miles. The level of the lake is 600 feet above the level 
of the river. This led people who thought the canal could 
never be successful to ask sneeringly whether its engineers 
could make water run uphill. The governor of New York, 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 



261 



De Witt Clinton, replied that they could build locks which 
would lift canal boats over every hill in their path. 

The building of the canal took eight years — the eight 
years of Monroe's presidency. Forests had to be cleared ; 
ridges had to be cut through ; immense stone locks had to be 
built and aqueduct bridges to carry the canal over streams. 




EARLY TRAVEL ON THE ERIE CANAL 



At last came a day when the work was finished (1825). 
Cannon were placed five miles apart along the canal's 
whole length. As the water of Lake Erie flowed into this 
great artificial channel the first cannon was fired. From 
gun to gun the signal was flashed across the entire state. 
Governor Clinton made the voyage from Buffalo to Albany 
and thence down the Hudson to New York, bringing with 
him a keg of water from Lake Erie. This water he poured 
into New York Harbor to commemorate, he said, ''the 
navigable communication between our Mediterranean Seas 
(the Great Lakes) and the Atlantic Ocean." 

239. Effects of the Erie Canal. From the day the canal was 
opened New York had a great advantage over Philadelphia 
in trading with the West. One fact will show this. Before 



2 62 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the canal was built, it cost ten dollars to send a barrel of 
flour by wagon from Albany to Buffalo. The cost of sending 
such a barrel the same distance on a canal boat was only 
thirty cents. No wonder the New Yorkers were enabled 
to build up almost immediately an immense business with 
the West. So great was this business that New York soon 
became, what it still is, our chief commercial city. 

SUMMARY 

The Federalists elected John Adams as Washington's succes- 
sor. His refusal to bribe the French Directory involved us in 
the naval war of 1798, which terminated through negotiations 
with Napoleon. The use of power by the Federalists during the 
war called forth a statement of principles by the Republicans, 
embodied in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. 

Adams was succeeded by Jefferson. Against his wish Jeffer- 
son felt compelled to make war on the pirates of Tripoli. He 
purchased Louisiana from Napoleon. Fortunately we acquired a 
new means of transportation, the steamboat, just as we acquired 
the Mississippi River system, and the new West was rapidly 
occupied. Meanwhile Jefferson refused to enter the war against 
Napoleon and attempted by means of the embargo to force both 
belligerents to consider American interests. The embargo, however, 
caused so much distress at home that it was repealed. His suc- 
cessor, Madison, was tricked by Napoleon and induced to go to 
war with England. On land the War of 181 2 was a series of 
raids without permanent advantage to either side, closing with 
the battle of New Orleans. On the sea Americans made a distin- 
guished record, winning a number of naval duels. A treaty of 
peace signed at Ghent was little more than an agreement to stop 
fighting and be friends again. 

Monroe, the third Republican president, secured permanent 
peace on our northern frontier by the agreement of 181 7, for- 
bidding the maintenance of warships on the Great Lakes. Later 
he cooperated with England to prevent the Holy Alliance from 
conquering South American countries that had acquired their inde- 
pendence from Spain. His statement of the foreign policy of the 



FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 263 

United States has come to be known as the Monroe Doctrine. By 
treaty with England Monroe determined our northern boundary 
from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains, and by 
treaty with Spain he settled our southwest boundary. He pur- 
chased Florida. A sudden outbreak of sectional feeling with regard 
to slavery led in 1820 to the Missouri Compromise. 

Westward emigration increased from the older free states into 
the northwest and from the older slave states into the southwest. 
The importance of trade with the West led to the building of the 
Erie Canal, which made New York City the chief American 
seaport. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher: *Adams, United States^ I, chap, xii ; II, chap, ii; 
V, chaps, vii-viii ; VIII, chaps, i, xi-xiii ; IX, chap, ii ; Bassett, United 
States^ chaps, xiv, xv, xvii ; BoGART, Economic History, chap, xv ; Bol- 
ton, The Spanish Borderlands (Chronicles of America); Brigham, Geo- 
graphic Influences, chap, v ; *Callender, Economic History of the 
United States, 239-259 ; Channing, United States (IV, chaps, x-xiv, 
xvii-xix) and The Jeffersonian System ; Coolidge, The United States as a 
World Power, chap, v; *CoRWiN, John Marshall and the Constitution 
(Chronicles of America) ; Fess, Political Theory, chaps, ii-v ; Foster, A 
Century of A inetican Diplomacy, chap, xii ; Hart, Contemporaries, III, 
chaps, xvi-xviii, xix, xxii ; ^W.YXO.ncocv., Louisiana Purchase ; HuLBERT, 
The Paths of Inland Commerce (Chronicles of America) ; Hunt, Madison ; 
*JoHNSON, Union and Democracy (chaps, vii-xiii), y^^rj^« and his Col- 
leagues (Chronicles of America), and Readings in the History of the United 
States (277-299) ; *Latane, From Isolation to Leadership ; Macdonald, 
Sour.ce Book, 279-282, 289-293, 311-320; McMaster, History, II, 
chaps, xiii-xvii; IV, chap, xxxix; V, chap. xii; MuzzEV, Readings, 200-254; 
Paine, The Fight for a Free Sea (Chronicles of America); Reudaway, 
The Monrve Doctrine; Rhodes, Utiited States, I, chaps, i, ii, iv ; Web- 
ster, History of Commerce, chap, xxiii, 359-392 ; Woodburn, Political 
Parties, chap. iii. 

For the Pupil : Barstow, A New Nation, 43-46 ; Blaisdell and 
Ball, Hero Stories from American History; Brigham, From Trail to 
Railway through the Appalachians; Bruce, Romance of American 
Expansion, chaps, ii, iii; Drake, Making of the Great H^'est, 153-214; 
Elson, Sidelights on American History, chaps, iv-ix ; Faris, Real 
Stories from Our History (chaps, xvi, xxi, xxii, xxv, xxxii-xxxv) and 
Great Epochs in American History (IV, 14-185) ; Hitchcock, Louisiana 



2 64 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Purchase \ Lane and Hill, American History in Literature, 104-123; 
Merwin, Thomas Jefferson-^ Mowry, American Inventions, 215-228-, 
NicoLAY, Our Nation, chaps, iv, v ; *Sea\vell, Twelve Great Naval 
Commanders; *Sparks, Men who made the Nation, chap, vii; Wright, 
American Progress, chaps, iii, iv, v, vii. 



PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. What were the principles of the Federalist party (sections 198, 
199) ? 2. How did President Adams take offense at the French govern- 
ment? 3. What was the naval war of 1798? 4. During this war how 
did certain aliens in America conduct themselves? 5. What action 
did Congress take ? [6. Compare the action of unscrupulous aliens in 
two wars (see Chapter XXIV).] 7. Why did the Republicans disapprove 
of the Alien and Sedition Laws ? [8. Review the movement for a 
strong central government. (See sections 194, 215, 216; also Fiske, The 
Critical Period of American History ; Johnson, Union and Democracy, 
chaps, i, ii, iv, vi ; Elson, Sidelights, chaps, ii, xviii ; Conant, Alexander 
Hamilton.)'\ 

[9. Write an essay on John Marshall. (See Corwin, John Marshall and 
the Constitutions (Chronicles of America); Thayer, John Marshall.)'] 
[10. Write an essay on the beginnings of states rights or on Thomas 
Jefferson. (See Johnson, Jefferson and his Colleagues ; Channing, The 
Jeffersonian System ; Merwin, Thomas Jefferson ; Sparks, The Men 
who made the Nation, chap, vii.)] 11. How was the dispute over the 
Mississippi renewed ? How was it settled ? How much land did we 
acquire? 12. How was Louisiana explored? 

13. What caused a quarrel between England and America during the 
time of Napoleon the Great ? 14. How did Jefferson try to prevent 
war? 15. Where and why was the embargo opposed in America? 
16. If there had been an Atlantic cable in 1812 would we have gone to 
war? Why not? 17. How and when was the "Star-Spangled Banner" 
composed ? 18. Describe the one great land battle. 19. What was done 
by the American navy ? 20. Why and where was peace made ? 

21. What agreement did Monroe make about Canada? 22. What was 
the Holy Alliance ? What did it propose to do ? How were its aims 
defeated ? 23. What are the three assertions of the Monroe Doctrine ? 
24. How did Monroe define our northern boundary ? our western 
boundary-? our southern boundary? 25. Why did the West need steam- 
boats? 26. What else did the West need and why (section 237)? 
27. What is the importance of the Erie Canal in American history? 



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feg^e^irarjfao K.^aoLW^'^Mr juurii.'ioi^^ DJOt:^Mi?^iL;^rak:NiLMra[^::ira ra&^::;aM^Ni 



THE SOUTH SENT MANY THOUSANDS OF BALES OF COTTON TO ENGLAND 



CHAPTER XIV 



A NEW QUESTION MAKES A NEW PARTY 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, SIXTH PRESIDENT 

240. John Quincy Adams, President; Protection wanted 
by Manufacturers. John Quincy Adams, who had been 
Monroe's Secretary of State, was elected president/ The 
chief event of his administration was a great dispute over 
the tariff. 

Jefferson's embargo (section 225) and other laws which 
followed it prevented our trading with Europe and for a 
time kept European goods out of this country. Many Amer- 
icans with money said to themselves, '^Now is the time to 
set up factories when there are no European goods to com- 
pete with ours." They did so. At first everything went 
well with them. They sold their American-made articles 
and made money, as they had hoped. 

lAt this time there was but one political party, the Republican (section 
198). The Federalist party (section 198) made its last nomination for presi- 
dent in 1816. In 1820 there was no candidate opposing Monroe. In 1824 
various leaders of the Republicans stood for election, but all claimed to be 
members of the same party (see section 250). 

265 



266 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



And then came the end of the war. European goods 
poured into the country. And now one of the great results 
of the Industrial Revolution (section 208) appeared. Eng- 
land's huge new factories could manufacture goods at very 
low cost. Workmen were plentiful in England and drew 
small wages ; as a consequence the imported goods were 

offered at lower prices than 
the American articles, and 
the American manufacturers 
suddenly found themselves 
unable to sell anything. In 
alarm they turned to Congress 
and begged for help. They 
wanted to have the foreign 
goods shut out of the country. 
Congress would^not go so far 
as that, but it promised to 
give the manufacturers pro- 
tection. It did so by laying 
a tax on each foreign article. 
The merchant who imported 
the article paid the tax. He 
then added the tax to the price. Thus, when he offered the 
article for sale across his counter he had to charge the same 
price he would charge for a similar article made in America. 
This arrangement of taxes for the purpose of raising the 
price of foreign articles is called a protective tariff. 

241. Opposition to Protection : why the North was satisfied 
with it, while the South was not. At first everybody said, ''Of 
course give the manufacturers protection." In the North 
people continued to say this, because, although the manufac- 
turers charged high prices, they also paid high prices. The 
Westerner who sent his grain to New York to feed the 
manufacturing population in the East made good bargains ; 




JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 



A NEW QUESTION MAKES A NEW PARTY 267 



so the Eastern workman and the Western farmer were 
well pleased with each other. But before long the South- 
erners, who were chiefly concerned with the raising of cot- 
ton (section 209), protested. The most important market 
for their cotton was England. They sent many thousand 
bales to England each year, but when they brought English 
goods to America they had to 
pay the tax on them just as 
all other importers had to pay, 
in order to protect our own 
manufacturers. In this way, 
it seemed to the Southerners, 
they were forced to spend an 
unfair proportion of their cot- 
ton profits in purchasing 
manufactured articles. They 
complained that they had to 
sell at English prices and buy 
at American prices. 

242. The "Tariff of Abom- 
inations." The bitterness be- 
tween North and South in 
1820 (section 235) was due 

in no small degree to a desperate quarrel in Congress over 
a proposed increase of the tariff. The Northerners passed 
a tariff bill through the House of Representatives^ but 
were unable to pass it through the Senate. While Adams 
was president the attempt to raise the tariff was renewed. 
The friends of the manufacturers and the friends of the 
Western grain-growers, led by Henry Clay, passed a bill 
raising the tariff so high that it was nicknamed the '^Tariff 

^The North was increasing in population more rapidly than the South. 
Already it had a majority in the House. This was why the South insisted 
that in the Senate the number of Northern and Southern senators should 
be equal (p. 258, note 2). 




HENRY CLAY 



2 68 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



of Abominations." The bill was signed by President Adams. 
Thus Clay and Adams were recognized as leaders of the 
Protectionists. In opposition were most of the other Re- 
publicans under the leadership of John C. Calhoun of 
South Carolina. 

243. The Question of States' Rights : Should the South Se- 
cede? The feeling against the tariff was especially strong in 

South Carolina, and there, as 
well as in other parts of the 
South, the question was raised 
whether they should stay in 
the Union when its laws did 
them harm ? This produced a 
contention over states' rights : 
that is, whether in adopting 
the Constitution each state 
had promised to remain in 
the Union forever or had re- 
tained the right to withdraw. 
The latter view was prevalent 
in the South, where most 
people held that the Consti- 
tution was a mere contract 
like any other business agree- 
ment, and that any state was as free to secede from the 
Union as a business partner is free to withdraw from a firm. 
Many Southerners now began to talk about seceding. 

244. Calhoun; the Doctrine of Nullification. There was 
scarcely anyone more eager to avoid secession than Calhoun, 
but he was unconditionally opposed to the tariff. He now 
brought forward an idea that has come to be known as the 
Doctrine of Nullification. He said, in substance: "Instead 
of seceding, let us refuse to allow the tariff to be put into 
operation in our state, and make an appeal to all the states 
not to allow Congress to pass laws by which any one of us 




'iif ,;^^ 7/// 



JOHN C. CALHOUN 



A NEW QUESTION MAKES A NEW PARTY 269 



shall be hurt." This idea pleased the Southerners, and for 
a while there was no more talk about secession ; instead, 
there was a great deal of talk about nullification/ 

ANDREW JACKSON, SEVENTH PRESIDENT 

245. Andrew Jackson. Just at this time General Jackson 
(section 229) was elected president. He was a '' self-made 
man," with little schooling 
and of humble origin. He 
was perfectly fearless, abso- 
lutely honest, with a wonder- 
ful gift for inspiring and 
holding the confidence of 
great numbers of men. He 
was especially beloved by 
the plain people all over the 
country, who nicknamed him 
''Old Hickory" and called 
him the ''standard bearer of 
the people." His personal in- 
fluence was so great that 
often his partisans followed 
his advice in defiance of their 
own convictions.- 




ANDREW JACKSON 



^We must observe the exact meaning of Calhoun's proposition. Before 
this all legislation had rested on the idea that the majority must rule. 
Clay expressed this idea very forcibly in Congress. But Calhoun wished to 
require the majority not to do anything hurtful to the minority; in other 
words, he wanted to substitute for the principle of majority rule the principle 
of unanimous consent. Only such laws as all of us can agree to were to be put 
into effect. He reasoned that since we require a jury to be unanimous in pass- 
ing judgment, we may require Congress to be unanimous in making a law. 

-Jackson was a believer in the custom of turning out of office all the 
men who belonged to the opposite party. This practice is known as the 
spoils system, because of the old saying "to the victors belong the spoils." 
In our day it has been strongly condemned by the advocates of civil-service 
reform, which aims to have applicants for government offices pass careful 
examinations. 



2 70 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

246. Both Sides turn to Jackson ; they define their Views in 
the Great Debate. Both sides in the tariff controversy fixed 
their eyes upon the new president. Would he uphold the 
tariff or would he try to get it repealed ? If Congress would 
not repeal it, would he indorse the Doctrine of Nullification ? 

While everyone was eagerly 
waiting to see what Jackson 
would do, there occurred the 
most celebrated debate ( 1 830 ) 
that has ever taken place in 
the United States Senate. 
It is still called the Great 
Debate. The senators who 
made the most noted speeches 
were Robert Y. Hayne of 
South Carolina and Daniel 
Webster of Massachusetts. 
Both these great men seized 
the opportunity to make per- 
fectly plain how their sections 
felt upon the question of 
obedience to a law enacted by Congress. Hayne spoke for 
the South, Webster for the North. Hayne spoke first 
(January 21, 1830). As he aimed to make perfectly clear 
the idea of states rights (section 243) he said, in substance: 

We Southerners have been brought up to feel that our state 
has the first claim to our love and obedience ; in a thousand 
ways we have been taught to cherish this feeling ; in my eyes the 
only real country I have is South Carolina ; the United States as 
a whole do not mean to me one tenth what South Carolina does ; 
when the United States Congress passes laws that are injurious 
to South Carolina, I will resist them ; I will try nullification first, 
but if that does not work, I will advocate secession ; if you try 
to prevent me, I will fight ; rather than let you pass any law 
injurious to my beloved state, I will gladly lay down my life. 




ROBERT Y. HAYNE 



A NEW QUESTION MAKES A NEW PARTY 271 

Webster, who believed in what we call the national idea, 
said (January 26, 1830) what amounted to this: 

In the North we no longer think of the state as our country ; 
we believe that when our fathers adopted the Constitution they 
promised to make an end of such thoughts ; we are thinking of 
the complete Union as the only country that has a right to com- 
mand our love and obedience ; what the Congress of the Union 
commands must be accepted by us all as the law of the land ; to 
oppose it is treason ; if Massachusetts should resist an act of 
Congress, then it would be my dreadful duty at the command 
of Congress to take up arms against my state.^ 

The two ideas expressed in the Great Debate — the ^^ states' 
rights" idea, that your highest duty was to your state; 
and the ''national" idea, that your first duty was to the 
Union — continued to be discussed throughout our country 
for more than thirty years, until at last they produced 
a great war. 

247. South Carolina tries Nullification; Jackson Opposes. 
In 1832 the South Carolina leaders determined they would 
not submit to the tariff any longer. A convention was held 
which voted to notify the president that the tariff was 
nullified in South Carolina ; that is, that they forbade the 
enforcement of the law, and if its enforcement was attempted 
they would fight. 

And now at last Jackson showed how he felt upon 
this great question. The story is that when he got the news 
from South Carolina he shouted: ''By the Eternal — the 
Union shall be preserved. Send for General Scott" (section 
229). Jackson issued a proclamation warning South Car- 
olinians to cease opposing the law. At the same time he 
ordered General Scott to prepare for war. 

1 There has been much discussion as to just when the national idea became 
predominant in the North. Webster's biographer, Henry Cabot Lodge, thinks 
it was a new idea in 1830. Even as late as 1861 some Northerners did not 
accept it and therefore opposed the war with the Confederacy. 



2 72 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

248. Clay effects a Compromise. Terrible things might 
have happened if Clay had not again succeeded in persuad- 
ing both sides to agree to a compromise. One reason why 
he succeeded in doing so was the fact that many of Jackson's 
followers were states' rights men who regretted their leader's 
course. Jackson's wonderful power over them (section 245) 
kept them on his side, but they were troubled by the way 
things were going and did not want to see South Carolina 
humiliated. These men were eager for a compromise. With 
their help Clay and Webster succeeded in getting Congress 
to pass an act asserting its right to compel South Carolina 
to obey, and then immediately they passed another act 
lowering the tariff. Jackson approved these acts (1833). 
The reduction of the tariff satisfied South Carolina, and 
there was no further attempt at nullification. 

249. Jackson puts an End to the Bank of the United States; 
the Removal of Deposits. In the midst of the excitement over 
nullification Jackson was reelected (1832). Previously he 
had told the country that if he was elected he meant to 
destroy the Bank of the United States.' Clay and the Protec- 
tionists all were in favor of the bank, which was accused of 
lending them great sums of money. Jackson also believed 
that the bank was an enemy to the poor people, that it helped 
the rich to become richer, and that it used its great wealth to 
influence elections. He took away from the bank the money 
deposited by the government and brought its career as Bank 
of the United States to an end. 

250. The New Party in Opposition to Jackson; First Whig 
Candidate defeated by Van Buren. Three great leaders were 
opposed to Jackson — John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and 
Daniel Webster. All were Protectionists. All were believers 

^ There have been in our history two banks with this name. The one 
organized by Hamilton (section ig8) had long since ceased to do business 
as a government bank. Afterwards another bank was organized by Congress. 
It was this second bank that Jackson antagonized. 



A NEW QUESTION MAKES A NEW PARTY . 273 

in the national idea. All were friends of the Bank of the 
United States, and all disliked Jackson for destroying it. 
Around these three the new Whig party was formed, but 
it was not yet strong enough to carry the presidential 
election (1836). The Republicans, — who now began to be 
called Democrats, — at the command of Jackson, nominated 
his intimate friend, Martin Van Buren, who was elected. 

SUMMARY 

The embargo and the War of 181 2 shut off the supply of Euro- 
pean goods and led Americans to start new lines of manufacture, 
but at the close of the war European goods came in again at 
lower prices than American goods. To compete with them Ameri- 
can manufacturers persuaded Congress to establish a protective 
tariff. This was hard on cotton-growers, because much of their 
product went to England for- sale, and thus they had to sell at 
English prices, but buy at American prices. The matter became a 
sectional issue — the North favoring a tariff, the South opposing it. 
It led to a revival of the debate over states' rights. Calhoun gave 
the debate a new turn by the Doctrine of Nullification. Webster 
and Hayne gave eloquent expression to the conflicting ideas of 
their sections in the Great Debate. However, the Protectionists 
would not give way, and South Carolina tried the experiment of 
nullification. While this contention had been gathering strength, 
John Quincy Adams served four years as president and was 
succeeded by Andrew Jackson. Jackson announced that he would 
prevent nullification by force. Thereupon Clay effected a com- 
promise : the tariff was lowered and South Carolina's ordinance of 
nullification was repealed. Clay and Jackson did not continue to 
act together. They differed chiefly over the Bank of the United 
States, from which Jackson withdrew the deposits of the govern- 
ment. Other leaders opposed to Jackson, including Webster and 
John Quincy Adams, united with Clay to form the new Whig 
party, while the members of the Republican party became known 
as Democrats. 



2 74 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : Bassett, chaps, xviii-xx ; Bogart, Industrial His- 
tory of the United States, chaps, xvi, xvii, xx ; Brown, Lower South in 
American History, 16-49; Callender, Economic History, 327-344, 
446-471, 487-563; Dewey, Financial Histo/y, chaps, viii-xi ; *Dodd, 
Expansion and Conflict (chaps, i-vi) and Statesmen of the Old South ; Fess, 
Political Theory, chaps, vi, x, xi ; Harding, Select Orations, 212-241 ; 
Hart, Contemporaries, HI, chap, xxiv; *Hunt, Calhoun; *Johnson, 
Union and Democracy (chaps, xvii, xviii) and Readings (299-336); John- 
ston, American Orations (edited by Woodburn) ,1, 23 1-302 ; Macdonald, 
facksonian Democracy and Source Book (329-340) ; McMastek, History, 
V, chaps, xlii, xlvi, liii ; VI, chaps, liv-lv, Ivii-lix, Ixiii-lxv, Ixix ; Muzzey, 
Readings, 255-288; *Ogg, The Reign of Andrew Jackson (Chronicles of 
America); Rhodes, History, I, 40-53 ; *Schurz, Henry Clay; *Wil.son, 
Division and Reunion, chap. i. 

For the Pupil : Brown, Andrew Jackson ; Elson, Sidelights, chaps, x, 
xi ; Faris, Makers of Our Histoty (chaps, x, xii) and Great Epochs in 
American History (Ml, 3-1 1, 31-35, 178-190); Hart, Contemporaries, 
HI, chap, xxiv; Long, American Patriotic Prose, 1 53-1 61; Nicolay, 
Our Nation in the Building, chap, viii ; Perry and Elson, P''our Great 
American Presidents, I ; Sparks, The Men who made the Natiott, 
chaps, viii-x ; Wilson, Division and Reunion, chaps, i -iv. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. Define "protective tariff." 2. Why did we have a protective 
tariff in 1824 ? 3. What people were benefited by the tariff ? How ? 
4. What people opposed the tariff? Why? 5. How did this tariff 
dispute revive the question of states' rights ? [6. Explain why North 
and. South in 1830 had different interests and show how they had 
gradually become unlike each other (sections 41-43. 70-71, 131-133, 
235, 241, 243, 247).] 7. What took place in the Senate about this time? 
8. In the Great Debate what was Hayne's argument ? Webster's argu- 
ment? 9. What did South Carolina decide to do? 10. How did Presi- 
dent Jackson act? 11. How did Clay prevent civil war? 12. What 
leaders combined against Jackson? 13. What three ideas did Adams, 
Clay, and Webster have in common ? What new party did they form ? 
[14. What ideas did the Whigs have that had been previously held by 
the Federalists? (See sections 198, 247, 249, 250; also Cole, Whig 
Party in the South, chaps, i, ii ; Lodge, Daytiel Webster, chaps, vi, vii ; 
Schurz, Henry Clay, chaps, xix, xx ; Sparks, The Men who made the 
Nation, chaps, viii, ix.)] 




SCENE ON THE NATIONAL ROAD 



CHAPTER XV 



THE TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 



251. New Settlement in the Northwest; the Black Hawk 
War; Chicago Founded. In the eight years during which 
Jackson was president many striking changes took place. 
For one thing immigration continued to pour into the West. 
The rich prairie lands of Illinois were now the favorite 
region toward which the immigrants moved. So fast did 
they come that a powerful Indian chief, Black Hawk, felt 
that if he did not resist them his people would sooner or later 
be driven off their lands. He took up arms against the 
whites. But of course the time when Indians were a match 
for the American army had long gone by. Black Hawk was 
driven out of Illinois into Wisconsin and captured in the 
hard battle of Bad Axe (1832).^ 

^This was the last Indian war in the Northwest for a period of thirty 
years. There were other Indian troubles about 1830. For the second 
Seminole war see page 257, note i. Other Southern Indians, including the 
Creeks, Cherokees, Chickasaws, and Choctaws, were either persuaded or 
compelled to sell their lands and remove to the Indian Territory, which was 
set apart for Indian tribes in 1834. 

275 



2 76 SCHOOL HISTORY 0^ THE UNITED STATES 

When Black Hawk was captured a little town was spring- 
ing up around Fort Dearborn on Lake Michigan. Soon 
afterwards (1833 ) it was given a name, Chicago. Its inhabit- 
ants numbered about five hundred. Though much less than 
a hundred years old, it has inhabitants now to the number of 
two million five hundred thousand. 

252. The First American Railway; Peter Cooper's Loco- 
motive. In the year of Jackson's first election (1828) the 
building of a steam railway^ was begun. It was undertaken 
by the city of Baltimore in the hope of getting more trade 
with the West. The work was started on July 4, 1822. 
Before this road — now known as the Baltimore and Ohio 
— was completed, a short railroad began business in Penn- 
sylvania. Over the rails of this latter road ran the first 
locomotive ever seen in this country. It had been brought 
from England. The first locomotive built in America was 
constructed at Baltimore in 1830 by Peter Cooper and was 
called the Tom Thumb. Beside one of the great engines 
of today it would seem like a baby beside a grown man. 
Fourteen miles of the Baltimore railroad had now been com- 
pleted, and over this part of the track the Tom Thumb 
made a trial trip. The little engine, sputtering smoke and 
fire and drawing one open car filled with passengers, made 
the trip in somewhat less than an hour. On the way back it 
raced a similar car, drawn by a spirited gray horse, and was 
barely able to win the race. 

253. Rapid Growth of Railways. In the same year (1830) 
the people of South Carolina began what has been called the 
first long railroad in the world. They also had an American- 
built locomotive, which they named, very appropriately, the 
Best Friend. Four years later their road was completed 
from Charleston to Hamburg, opposite Augusta, a distance 
of one hundred and thirty-four miles. 

'The steam locomotive was invented in England (1814) by George 
Stephenson. 



TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 277 

Another great railroad was begun in the year following 
the Tom Thumb's race. We have seen that the Mohawk 
Valley contains one of the historic pathways of our country 
(section 22). Through that valley led one of the oldest 
Indian trails, connecting the Hudson with the Great Lakes. 
The wagon road which grew out of that trail was followed 




THE DEVELOPMENT OF LOCOMOTIVES 

Upper, the Tom Thumb winning its race with a horse-drawn car; middle, 
the De Witt Clinton engine of 1830 ; lower, a modern locomotive 

westward by thousands of emigrants. Through the Mohawk 
Valley the Erie Canal had been built. A railway was now laid 
out (1831) following the course of the Mohawk. It is known 
today as the New York Central. Railroads quickly over- 
spread the country. From twenty-three miles in 1830 they 
had by 1920 extended to about a quarter of a million. 

254. The New Demand for Coal. Railways could hardly 
have been successful if there had not been plenty of coal. 
Thus the introduction of railways created new opportunities 
for business in those regions where there were coal fields. 
Most, if not all, of the coal supply in Jackson's time came from 



2 78 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Pennsylvania. In Pennsylvania, also, close to the coal fields, 
were rich iron mines. From about 1830 onward Pennsyl- 
vania has been the center of a large coal and iron industry, 

255. The McCormick Reaper. Another great change was 
the enlargement of the size of farms. It was so easy to 
get land in the West that people began to buy it up in large 




UPPER RIGHT, HAND REAPER ; UPPER LEFT, HORSE REAPER, 1831 ; BELOW, 
MODERN HARVESTER THRESHER WITH OIL TRACTOR 

tracts. But how were they to cultivate these immense farms ? 
Farm laborers were comparatively few. If the Western land- 
owners were to profit by their huge estates, they must get 
some sort of machinery which would do the work of many 
men. Cyrus McCormick solved their problems by inventing 
a reaper drawn by horses. \ATiat the cotton gin (section 
209) was to the South, the McCormick reaper was to the 
West. It enabled one man to do what was formerly done 
by twenty men slowly reaping the wheat with scythes. As 
late as 1840 the census reported our whole wheat crop as 
only thirteen million, bushels. Today it comes near being 
a thousand million bushels. 



TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 279 

256. Coeducation ; Women's Colleges. A great change in 
the customs of our country came out of the West when 
Jackson was president. In Ohio, at the village of Oberlin, 
was a little college (1833) that decided to admit young 
women as well as young men. Thus coeducation began. To- 
day, in many American colleges and in thousands of Amer- 
ican schools, the example set by Oberlin has been followed. 




THE ORIGINAL BUILDING OF THE GEORGIA FEMALE COLLEGE, NOW WES- 

LEYAN COLLEGE, THE FIRST INSTITUTION IN THE WORLD TO CONFER A 

COLLEGE DEGREE UPON A WOMAN 

From an old print 

The growing interest in the education of women produced 
also advanced schools for girls alone. Emma Willard had 
founded Troy Female Seminary in 1821. In 1836 the 
legislature of Georgia chartered the Georgia Female College, 
now named Wesleyan College, at Macon, which was the first 
institution in the world to give a college diploma to a 
woman (1840).^ 

1 First on the list of graduates was Catherine Brewer, who became the 
mother of Admiral Benson, a distinguished American commander in the 
World War. 



2 8o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

257. Manhood Suffrage; Dorr's Rebellion. A most sweep- 
ing change made by the people of the new states consisted 
in giving all men the right to vote. They had begun doing this 
long before Jackson became president. Vermont, which re- 
sembled the West in being a "frontier" state, was the first 
to establish manhood suffrage (section 218). Kentucky was 
the next. The other Western states rapidly followed these 
examples and gave all men, whether rich or poor, the right to 
vote. However, when Jackson was elected few states of the 
East had followed the Western example. One cause of 
Jackson's great popularity was his steadfast assertion that 
every man should have a vote. During his time manhood 
suffrage was made the rule in most states, but it did not 
become universal in the United States until several years 
later. The last serious dispute over manhood suffrage took 
place in Rhode Island, where there was a miniature civil war 
known as Dorr's Rebellion (1842), which put an end to the 
distinction between rich and poor with regard to the ballot. 

258. The Abolition Movement; William Lloyd Garrison. 
We have seen that many people had long disapproved of 
slavery, and many of them, both North and South, wished to 
bring it to an end. Among those was Jefferson (section 218). 
In the Virginia legislature, shortly after Jackson became 
president, a scheme to free the Mrginia slaves was defeated 
by one vote (1831). In the North a famous opponent of 
slavery was William Ellery Channing, the most distinguished 
Boston clergyman then living. However, these men did not 
write or speak of the slaveholders in a bitter way. Channing 
said to his friends in the South, ''We consider slavery as 
your calamity, not your crime ; and we will share with you 
the burden of putting an end to it." He wanted the govern- 
ment to use the proceeds from the sale of public lands for 
the purpose of buying and freeing the blacks. 

But this did not suit a young man in Boston, William 
Lloyd Garrison. He had a bold and fiery nature and had 




FIRST COEDUCATIONAL COMMENCEMENT EXERCISES, IN A TENT 
. ON THE GROUNDS OF OBERLIN COLLEGE (1841) 
From a pen-elching by Sears Gallagher 



TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 281 

brooded long on the subject of slavery. At last he came to 
the conclusion that to own slaves was a deadly sin. He 
wanted to abolish slavery and to make the slaveholders 
suffer ; therefore he and others who thought as he did took 
the name of abolitionists. To spread his views he began 
publishing a paper, The Liberator (January i, 1831). At 
the head of this paper he subsequently printed the statement 
that the Constitution, because it permitted slavery, was 
'^a covenant with death and an agreement with hell."^ 

259. The Spread of Abolitionism. Many of the strongest 
opponents of slavery disapproved of Garrison and refused 
to join his movement," but he succeeded from the start in 
making friends. In all parts of the North and West aboli- 
tion societies were formed. In a short time there were 
one hundred and fifty thousand members. 

At just this time occurred one of the most horrible events 
in our history. A slave in Virginia named Nat Turner secretly 
planned with other slaves a frightful insurrection. Suddenly 
he and his followers attacked the houses of their masters 
and murdered women and children in circumstances of 
extreme cruelty (1831). In the South it was generally be- 
lieved that ''Nat Turner's Rebellion" was due to the teach- 
ing of Garrison. 

In the North the feeling against Garrison was almost as 
bitter. There were riots, and abolition meetings were broken 
up by angry mobs. In Boston, on one occasion. Garrison 
himself was seized and dragged through the streets (1835). 
One of his followers, Elijah Lovejoy, was murdered in 
Illinois by a mob (1837). 

260. Newspapers. When so much was changing and such in- 
tense interest was taken in public questions it is not strange 

1 Words taken from the prophet Isaiah. 

2 Garrison advocated breaking up the Union in order to free the North 
from responsibility for slavery. Men like Daniel Webster and Abraham 
Lincoln refused to take that position. They also condemned his violent 
language and his bitterness toward the slaveholders. 



2 82 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

that there arose a new demand for information. And this 
brought about the establishment of cheap newspapers. The 
New York Sun (1833) was the first, followed soon by the 
New York Herald {1835). 

261. What the People read. The people of Jackson's day 
were keenly interested in books. The great English writers 




ii'^ 









"-"<"^^^^ 



.-(*<^ - 






"hOMEWOOD,"' BALTIMORE 

A fine specimen of the early nineteenth-century mansion. It now belongs to 
Johns Hopkins University 

of the time were eagerly read in America. Some of them — 
Carlyle, for example — made their first profits out of Ameri- 
can sales. In addition we had already some great writers of 
our own. Bryant had written ''Thanatopsis" before Jack- 
son became president. Cooper was writing his famous 
Indian romances. Washington Irving was recognized as a 
delightful writer both at home and abroad. William Gilmore 
Simms, the novelist of South Carolina, and that great, strange 
genius, Edgar Allan Poe, were both producing books while 
Jackson was in the White House. Just at the close of Jack- 
son's term Emerson began issuing his essays. 



TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 283 

262. Webster's Dictionary. One of the most important 
American books appeared the year of Jackson's first election. 
This was Webster's Dictionary, upon which Noah Webster 
of Connecticut had been at work for twenty years. It marks 
a new stage in the development of the noble English lan- 
guage, which contains such great literature and is one of the 
most precious things that we Americans possess. And this 
language belongs to us just as much as to the inhabitants of 
the British Empire ; our contributions to it, the new words 
and phrases we invent, have as much right to be included in 
its dictionaries as have the contributions of those other 
peoples — British, Canadian, South African, Australian — 
which share with us its possession. But before Webster no 
dictionary included these. Such words as '' prairie" and 
"savings bank," and many more which have originated 
in America, were first set down in an English dictionary by 
Noah Webster. 

263. Temperance Societies. Amid all the bustle and ex- 
citement of that time, there was quietly going on a wide- 
spread movement to restrict the use of alcohol. Even before 
Jackson's time it had begun. The American Society for 
the Promotion of Temperance, founded at Boston (1826), 
was the first of many. In Jackson's day Americans were 
still in the main hard drinkers, but everywhere the temper- 
ance societies were laboring to restrain the evil and were 
accomplishing great results.^ 

264. The National Party Convention. Of great significance 
was a far-reaching change in the method of selecting our 
presidents. Hitherto the senators and representatives belong- 
ing to one political party would meet in a "caucus" at 
Washington and choose that party's candidate for president. 

1 Later the Washington Temperance Society became very influential, and 
in 1851 Maine passed the first state prohibition law forbidding the sale of 
intoxicating liquors as beverages. Many other states passed similar laws. At 
lengvft, in 1919, an amendment to the National Constitution prohibited the 
manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors throughout the United States. 



284 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Jackson considered this method unfair to the rest of their 
party. He thought that in some way all the members of a 
party should be given a chance to say what candidate they 
preferred. All his influence was used to break up the plan 




THE WHITE HOUSE 



of nominating by the caucus. Instead, there was finally 
adopted the plan of holding a great popular convention made 
up of delegates chosen by the members of the party for the 
express purpose of selecting the party's candidates. Jackson 
himself was nominated in this way when he became a candi- 
date the second time, in 1832. 

265. The Establishment of Democracy. We may sum up 
all these changes of the thirties by saying that they 
mark the time when American democracy became a real 
thing. The steps by which this great result has been reached 
must be clearly understood. 




THE CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. 



286 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

1. In colonial times all Americans were accustomed to 
governing themselves in a considerable degree, either through 
town meetings (section 46), or through taking part in 
county management (section 131), or through electing 
their assemblies (section 134). 

2. In the course of the dispute with the king the ''gov- 
erning classes" (sections 131-133) throughout the colonies 
were distrusted by the patriots, who demanded a reduction 
of their power (section 151), and thus the Revolution be- 
came a movement for democracy. 

3. The pioneer communities, founded in the West soon 
after the Revolution (sections 186-188), were filled with 
bold, capable people, all about equal in fortune, and in these 
communities manhood suffrage was demanded (sections 
189, 218). 

4. From the West the demand spread to the East (section 
257), and gradually the right to vote was made general, 

5. In the thirties and early forties various political and 
social changes, such as the establishment of the political 
convention (section 264), gave the mass of the people greater 
power to direct the course of affairs, with the result that 
about 1840 there was in full operation in America the first 
successful large democracy that the world has known. 

SUMMARY 

Jackson's administration marks the time when American society 
became genuinely democratic. At the same time the American 
people completed their occupation of the country east of the 
Mississippi by breaking down the last strong tribes of Indians. 
The removal of Indians to the Indian Territory began. The 
development of the West went on more rapidly than ever and 
was greatly furthered by new inventions such as the horse reaper 
and the steam locomotive. The growing spirit of change produced 
coeducation and women's colleges. All America was in a ferment, 
as we say, as was shown by the appearance of a new interest 



TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 287 

in the abolition of slavery, which took two forms : Channing 
wanted North and South to cooperate in terminating slavery by 
purchase; Garrison preached a crusade against slaveholders. At 
this same time the outbreak of Nat Turner's Rebellion among 
the Virginia slaves alarmed the South. The stir of new ideas was 
shown in the eagerness for new books in America and by the ap- 
pearance of an original group of writers, while Webster's Dic- 
tionary demonstrated that English was now an international 
language. New political devices such as the nominating convention 
enabled the mass of the people to control the course of affairs. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : *Becker, The United States, chaps, iv, ix, x ; 
Brigham, Geographic Influences in American History, chaps, v, vii, 
x-xi, xiii ; Callender, Economic History, 409-417, 420-427, 633-665, 
697-710; *DoDD, Expansion and Conflict, chap, ix ; Fess, Political 
Theory, chaps, vii, viii ; Guitteau, Government and Politics, chap, xvi ; 
Hart, Slavery and Abolition (chaps, vii-xviii) and Contempoi-aries (III, 
chaps, xxiii, xxv, xxvii); Johnson, Readings, 353-356; I.O'HG, American 
Literature, chap, iii ; McMaster, V, chaps, xli-xlii, xliv, xlv, xlvii-xlix ; 
Macy, The Antislaveiy Crusade (Chronicles of America), chaps, ii-v ; 
MoouY, TJie Railroad Builders (Chronicles of America) ; Perrv, The 
Ajne?-ican Spirit in Literature (Chronicles of America), chaps, i-vi ; 
Slosson, The American Spirit in Education (Chronicles of America); 
*Turner, The Rise of the New IVest; Wendell, Literary History 
of America, 157-345. 

For the Pupil: Brigham, /v-^wz Trail to Railway; DiCKE.y:s, A merican 
Aotes; Drake, The Making of the Great West; Faris, Real Stories 
from Our History (chaps, xxxvi-xxxviii, xl-xli) and Great Epochs (VI 1, 12- 
16); Mowry, American Inventions,22\-ii'^; Paxson, The Last America)! 
Frontier, chap, xix ; Raymond. Peter Cooper; Sherman, Sotne Successful 
Americans; Sparks, Expatisiott of the American People, chap, xxiii ; 
Wright, American Progress, chap. x. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. State every reason you can think of why railways were needed in 
America about 1830 (see sections 190, 206, 236-238, 25.5). [2. What 
did the early railroad builders owe to the Indians? (See Chapters 
III, XXVII ; also Brigham, From Trail to Railway ; Moody, The 



288 TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 

Railroad Builders, chaps, i-v.)] 3. What invention besides the loco- 
motive helped to develop the West ? Why was it of great importance ? 
[4. What changes in American hfe were advocated by the West- 
erners? (See sections i8g, 257, 265; also Becker, United States, chap, 
vi ; Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, chap, ii ; Turner, Rise of the New 
West, chaps, v-vii, xvii. Five points to be developed are Western 
demand for great internal improvements, Western faith in a strong 
central government, manhood suffrage, free land, and coeducation.)] 
5. What movement hostile to slavery began about 1830? How did it 
differ from other movements to free the slaves ? 6. Name some of the 
famous w'riters of Jackson's time. What did they write about ? How 
was Webster's Dictionary unlike previous dictionaries ? 

7. What change was made in the method of nominating a president ? 
Why was this change important ? [8. Tell all you know about the 
way in which the government of the United States had gradually 
come to be controlled by the mass of the people. (See sections i8g, 
218, 245, 249, 264; also Becker, Beginnings, chap, v; Johnson, Union 
and Democracy, chaps, vi, xvii; Ogg, The ReigJi of Andrew Jackson, 
chaps, iv, V. The references, in addition to the text, are chjefly for the 
teacher; for the pupil they should be abridged.)] g. State the five 
main steps in the establishment of .American democracy. 




ASTORIA, OVR FIRST SETTLEMENT ON THE PACIFIC 



PART TWO: THE BUILDING OF 
A GREAT POWER 




. }iL%.^^ 



AMERICAN TROOPS ADVANCING IN THE MARNE 
VALLEY IN 1918 




FOURTH OF JULY IN THE SOUTH PASS 

FIFTH DIVISION. HOW THE UNION VERY 
NEARLY BROKE IN TWO 



CHAPTER XVI 

TEXAS, OREGON, CALIFORNIA 
MARTIN VAN BUREN, EIGHTH PRESIDENT 

266. How our Country has expanded: the Five Great Addi- 
tions. We have seen that two great additions of territory 
were made to our country between 1783 and the time of 
Jackson. These gave us ( i ) the western part of the Missis- 
sippi Valley (section 220) and (2) a large part of the coast 
of the Gulf of Mexico (section 234). We are now to see 
how three further additions filled out our country and gave 
it the shape on the map that it has today. 

267. Texas. During Jackson's time many of our country- 
men crossed the southwestern border and settled in Texas, 
which was then a part of the republic of Mexico. Later an 
unscrupulous soldier, Santa Anna, became dictator of Mex- 
ico and oppressed the Americans in Texas. They took arms 

291 



2 92 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

against him and fought a gallant war of independence. 
A small party of Texans who had taken possession of the 
Alamo, an old convent at San Antonio, were surrounded 
by a whole army of Mexicans led by Santa Anna. When the 
Mexicans stormed the Alamo not a Texan surrendered, but 
every man died at his post fighting desperately to the last 




THE CONVENT AND GROUNDS OF THE ALAMO 

(March 6, 1836). Shortly afterwards the Texans, led by 
General Sam Houston, defeated Santa Anna in the furious 
battle of San Jacinto, took him prisoner, and forced him to 
consent to the independence of Texas. One of the last acts 
of Jackson while president consisted in recognizing Texas 
as an independent republic (1837). The Texans themselves 
wanted to form a state in our Union, and the Southern mem- 
bers of Congress were in favor of admitting them ; but Texas 
maintained slavery, and for this reason many Northerners, 
among them Webster and Adams, objected. When Van 
Buren became president all the country was discussing the 
question, Shall we admit Texas ? 

268. The Panic of 1837 interrupts the Debate over Texas. 
However, the thoughts of our people were for a time turned 
away from Texas by business troubles which began the very 
year of Van Buren's inauguration. A great business house 
failed ; then another, and another ; then, hundreds. Tn the 



TEXAS, OREGON, CALIFORNIA 



293 



space of two months the business men of New York City 
lost a hundred million dollars. The banks refused to pay 
money to their depositors. Whoever had any gold or silver 
locked it up and would not, on any condition, part with it. 
The United States govern- 
ment had to issue paper 
money in payment to the 
army and navy. Factories 
and mills could not get the 
money to pay their workmen. 
The mills were forced to 
shut down and thousands of 
workmen were thrown out 
of employment.^ 

269. Clay's Policy; the In- 
dependent Treasury. Clay 
and the Whigs demanded 
that the government come to 
the assistance of the busi- 
ness men and lend them 
money. Van Buren made 




SAM HOUSTON, FIRST PRESIDENT 
OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS 



1 It is not easy to say what caused this frightful business panic. The 
following causes have been suggested: (i) The success of the Erie Canal 
(section 238) led many states, especially in the West, to borrow money and 
build canals. These canals did not always pay, and the states ran into debt. 
(2) The Bank of the United States (section 249) is thought by many to 
have contributed much to the prosperity of the country, and some think 
that Jackson hurt American business by breaking down the bank. (3) The 
government's money was deposited by Jackson in small banks nicknamed, 
in derision, "pet banks." These banks used the money in speculation. Among 
other things they bought great quantities of public land. A large part of 
the price of these lands was to be paid in the future, and the banks thought 
they would be allowed to pay in their own "bank notes"; that is, paper 
promises to pay, like the "continentals" of the Revolution (section 178). 
(4) Jackson surprised the pet banks by issuing the Specie Circular (1836), 
ordering them to pay for government land in gold or silver. To do so they 
had to borrow money. (5) Numbers of Americans had borrowed money 
from Europe. We owed to banks in England some two hundred million 
dollars. Much of this had been lost in rash speculations. 



294 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

himself very unpopular by insisting that the government 
had no right to do so. He argued that business ques- 
tions should be kept out of politics/ However, he proposed 
a wholly new plan for taking care of the money of the 
United States. Hitherto it had always been deposited in 
banks ; hereafter the government was to be its own banker, 
maintaining its independent treasury at Washington. Though 
there was much objection to the new plan, it was eventually 
put into operation and worked successfully. 

WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON, NINTH PRESIDENT; 
JOHN TYLER, TENTH PRESIDENT 

270. The Whigs defeat Van Buren. Great numbers of 
people who had suffered from the panic turned against Van 
Buren at the next election when his party renominated him 
for president. The Whigs, who nominated General Harrison, 
described V^an Buren as a selfish aristocrat and contrasted 
him with their own candidate, who lived in a log cabin on 
his farm in Ohio. This ''log-cabin candidate" was the man, 
they said, who could be trusted to look after the true interests 
of the ''plain people." They carried the election by a great 
majority. 

271. Death of Harrison ; the Vice President becomes Pres- 
ident. At his inauguration President Harrison caught a 
severe cold, and a month later he died. The vice president, 
John Tyler of Virginia, became president.- Tyler disposed 
of the two following territorial problems : 

I. The Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, negotiated 
with Lord Ashburton, who represented England, a treaty for 

' The idea that the government should leave business questions entirely 
alone became a principle of the Democratic party which was not seriously 
questioned by Democrats for fifty years (see Chapter XXII). 

2 The Constitution provides in Article II, Section i, paragraph 6, that in 
event of the death of the president, the vice president shall succeed him 
(see also section 213, note). 



TEXAS, OREGON, CALIFORNIA 



295 




determining the northern boundary of Maine. Ever since 
1783 there had be^n a dispute as to just where the boundary 
ran (see section 184). The Webster-Ashburton Treaty gave 
us the upper part of Maine, about seven thousand square 
miles. 

2. Webster resigned as secretary, partly because he was 
opposed to annexing Texas (section 267), while the president 
favored annexation. Tyler urged it 
upon Congress, and three days before 
he ceased to be president he had the 
pleasure of signing the resolution of 
Congress inviting Texas to enter the 
Union (March i, 1845). Texas ac- 
cepted the invitation (October 13, 
1845), ceased to be an independent 
republic, and became our largest state. 

272. The Oregon Question; Whit- 
man's Ride. Another dispute over ter- 
ritory involved Oregon. We had long 
claimed that wonderful country west of the Rocky Moun- 
tains.^ It extended along the Pacific coast from the forty- 
second parallel of north latitude to the parallel of 54° 40". 
Whether we were entitled to all of it, or part, or none had 
been in dispute between ourselves and England ever since 
the War of 181 2. 

Meanwhile American missionaries went out to Oregon. 
Two of them who accomplished great things were Marcus 
Whitman and H. H. Spaulding. They were accompanied by 

1 Because it was explored by Captain Gray in 1792 (section 221, note) and 
a settlement was made at Astoria in 181 1 ; also because of the exploration of 
Lewis and Clark (section 221). England maintained that the celebrated 
Captain Cook had discovered Oregon long before Gray and that it belonged 
to her. The Hudson Bay Company had established trading posts in Oregon. 
Still earlier Russia had laid claim to Oregon, but had agreed by treaty in 
1825 not to advance south of the line 54° 40". This treaty, however, 
left undecided the question whether England or the United States should 
have the country south of that line. 



FLAG OF THE RE- 
PUBLIC OF TEXAS 



2 96 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




THE OREGON COUNTRY 



their wives, though men who knew the Indian country had 
made plain to them how great was their risk of capture by the 
Indians. But these brave women were not to be kept back. 
Many others joined the party of the missionaries. On July 
4, 1836, they were in South Pass, which divides the Missis- 
sippi Valley from the Pacific 
slope. At the west end of 
the Pass they halted, raised 
the American flag, knelt be- 
neath it in a short service of 
prayer, and took possession 
of the country in the name 
of the United States. 

Shortly afterwards Whit- 
man went back to the East 
to bring out settlers. His 
journey took four months. 
Much of it was spent among winter snows on the high moun- 
tains and was accompanied by great hardships. This jour- 
ney, called Whitman's Ride, stimulated interest in Oregon, 
and when Whitman returned he guided a party of a thousand 
settlers. 

. JAMES K. POLK, ELEVENTH PRESIDENT 

273. Settlement of the Oregon Question. The possession 
of Oregon was loudly demanded in the presidential campaign 
of 1844. A popular catchword was ''Fifty-four forty or 
fight," which meant, ''We want the whole of Oregon, and if 
England objects, let us fight." This was a rallying cry of 
the Democrats, whose candidate, James K. Polk of Ten- 
nessee, defeated Clay, who had been nominated by the 
Whigs. Polk at once pressed negotiations with England, and 
finally the two countries agreed upon a compromise. The 
northern boundary of the United States (section 234) was 




Texas (184.5) 
Oregon (I84(i) 
Mexican Cession (184.8) 
Gadsden Purchase (1853) 



Original Area of U.S. 82r,844 " 

Area of Louisiana Purchase 875,U25 " 



TEXAS, OREGON, CALIFORNIA 



297 



extended due west to the Pacific^ (1846). The area thus 
annexed to the United States embraced about 300,000 square 
miles. It includes the whole of the states of Oregon, Wash- 
ington, Idaho, and parts of Wyoming and Montana. 

274. Outbreak of 
War with Mexico. 
In annexing Texas 
(section 271) we 
had taken up a bit- 
ter quarrel with 
Mexico. The Tex- 
ans claimed as their 
boundary the Rio 
Grande, while Mex- 
ico insisted that it 
lay a hundred miles 
farther east, at the 
Nueces River. The 
United States sup- 
ported Texas and 
sent General Zach- 
ary Taylor to take 
possession of the 
region in dispute. 

There, near Matamoros, the Mexicans attacked him, April 
25, 1846. Polk at once informed Congress that ^'now, after 
reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the 
United States and shed American blood on American soil." 
Congress voted money for the prosecution of the existing 
war (May 13, 1846).^ 

^See page 295, note. The straight line of our northern boundary has 
been marked every mile by a mound, a stone heap, or a cast-iron pillar. 

-There was angry contention throughout the country with regard to 
this war. The Whigs, in the main, condemned it, though their members in 
Congress stood by the president " on the ground that the army had been 




THE CAMPAIGNS OF THE MEXICAN WAR 



298 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

275. The Mexican War; Monterey; Buena Vista; Cerro 
Gordo; Chapultepec, In the short war which now took place 
our countrymen displayed striking qualities. In northern 
Mexico Taylor captured Monterey after four days of severe 
fighting (1846). Later, with only 5000 men he repulsed 
20,000 under Santa Anna in the furious battle of Buena Vista 
(1847). Meanwhile an army under General Scott (section 
229) had been sent by sea to Vera Cruz.' Thence Scott 





Pucbb 


PJ- 




\ 

y^ Cerro Cordo"''^ \^ "* 

San Juan ,/« t'HoaJV 
Orliab* g 



ROUTE OF GENERAL SCOTT 

marched inland and at Cerro Gordo won a brilliant victory 
(1847). He was aiming at the City of Mexico, and after 
much hard fighting" his gallant army approached the castle 
of Chapultepec, which was the main defense of the city. 
Planted on a rock one hundred and fifty feet high and de- 
fended by numerous soldiers, it seemed secure against attack. 
Seldom have Americans shown themselves more courageous 
than in the storming of this great fortress (September 13, 
1847). The next day the city was taken. 

276. The Conquest of California. While Scott was carry- 
ing everything before him, a volunteer army far off on the 

forced into a perilous position and must be rescued." The abolitionists 
(section 250) opposed it unconditionally, as a war to extend slavery. Lowell 
denounced it in his famous satires the " Biglow Papers." 

^The success of the Americans in capturing Vera Cruz was attributed 
by Scott to Robert E. Lee, a young officer of Virginia. A still younger 
officer of Scott's army who distinguished himself later in the campaign was 
Ulysses S. Grant of Ohio. 

2 The battles of Contreras, San .\ntonio, Churubusco, and Molino del Rey. 



TEXAS, OREGON, CALIFORNIA 



299 



Pacific slope was breaking down the Mexican power in 
California. It was composed of hardy Americans in Cali- 
fornia who had gone to that country, which then seemed so 
far away, in the hope of making their fortunes.^ The leader 




STORMING CHAPULTEPEC 



of this army was John C. Fremont, called the Pathfinder 
because he was the first to find a good path across the 
Rockies to California. 

When the war with Mexico began Fremont became the 
general of the Americans, who seized the town of Sonoma 
and made it their headquarters. They set up a flag on 
which was painted a grizzly bear and the words 'Xalifornia 

1 Some of these early immigrants to California suffered terribly from being 
caught in the storms of the high mountains. What is known as the Donner 
Party lost their way amid the snow, were overtaken by fearful storms, and 
only a very few at last made their way to California. See Century Maga- 
zine, July, 1891, "Across the Plains with the Donner Party." 



300 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




THE CALIFORNIA BEAR FLAG 



Republic." Assistance was given them by an American fleet 
which sailed along the coast and raised our flag over San 
Francisco, Monterey, and Los Angeles. But the Mexicans 
also had formed a California army. This force was met and 
defeated by Fremont at the San Gabriel River (1847). 

Shortly after this 
series of events 
General Kearny, 
having conquered 
New Mexico, ar- 
rived in California 
and took posses- 
sion of the country 
in the name of the 
United States. 

277. Results of 
the War. The next 
year Mexico and 
the United States made peace at Guadalupe Hidalgo (Feb- 
ruary 2, 1848). We agreed to give Mexico $15,000,000 and 
to pay debts amounting to about $3,000,000 owed by the re- 
public to American citizens. In return Mexico accepted the 
Rio Grande as the boundary of Texas and ceded us her great 
northern provinces of New Mexico and California.^ The 
territory acquired from Mexico, including Texas and a little 
piece which we bought later (Gadsden Purchase, see note 
below), could be subdivided into one hundred and ninety 
states, each the size of Connecticut. 

While the war was going on, David Wilmot, a Democrat 
from Pennsylvania, proposed in the House of Representa- 
tives to enact a law excluding slavery from all territory ceded 

^This cession comprised all our present continental territory south and 
west of the old line of Louisiana excepting what belonged to Texas and 
a small piece purchased from Mexico in 1853 and now called the Gadsden 
Purchase, from the name of the man who arranged the sale. We wanted 
this piece so as to get a good railway line along our southern boundary. 



TEXAS, OREGON, CALIFORNIA 



301 



by Mexico to the United States (1845). This proposition, 
called the Wilmot Proviso, received a majority vote in 
the House, but failed to pass the Senate. It brought out 
the fact that most Southerners — whether Democrats or 
Whigs — wanted slavery established in part, at least, of the 
new territory, and that most — or, at least, a great many — 
Northerners of both parties wanted it excluded. Thus arose 




SANTA BARBARA MISSION, CALIFORNIA 



a general discussion on the topic ''What shall be done with 
the new territory?" This was the one question in every- 
body's mind when peace was made early in 1848. 

278. Gold discovered in California. Two weeks before that 
a workman at Sutter's Mill, California, forty miles from 
what is now Sacramento, noticed little yellow specks in some 
freshly dug earth (January 24,1 848 ) . These specks were bits 
of gold. The American River, which flowed past the mill, was 
then examined, and its whole bed was found to be rich with 
those precious bits of gold. At first the discoverers tried to 
keep their " find " a secret, but they could not do so. One morn- 
ing in May a man walked into San Francisco waving a bottle 
filled with yellow specks and shouting, ''Gold, gold, gold, 
from the American River ! " Within four weeks there was 
scarcely an able-bodied man left in San Francisco. Whatever 
their work was they dropped it, seized picks and spades, and 



302 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



hurried away to the American River. Ships in the harbor 
could not sail because their crews had deserted. The two 
newspapers of San Francisco stopped printing because all 
their typesetters had gone off to dig for gold. San Francisco 
seemed to be an empty city all of whose shops were closed. 




y ^ 



THE SCENE OF THE GOLD DISCOVERY (SUTTER's MILL) 

In the autumn of 1848 the news of the discovery reached 
the Eastern states. There the excitement was equally great. 
Ships were bought for the sole purpose of taking gold-seekers 
on the long voyage round South America or by the Isthmus 
of Panama to the "Land of Gold." Large parties were or- 
ganized which were to start westward in wagons or on horse- 
back as soon as spring came and the snows on the Rocky 
Mountains began to melt.^ 

In those days the journey from the Atlantic coast to 
California was full of peril. A large proportion of the gold- 
seekers never reached their destination. Many died of fever 
crossing the Isthmus of Panama ; many more perished of 

^ These gold-seekers are called Forty-niners because they poured into 
California in the year 1849. 



TEXAS, OREGON, CALIFORNIA 



303 




setters Fort 

Sonora 
Sail Rata(iiy|'|i 

' San FranciscoflJ 

Santa Clara • 
San jbscT • 
Santa Cru2V»^ 
San Juan Bautisfa 
Monterey^ 
San Carlos Borromei 



San Antonio de Padyyi "^ Tulare L. 
San Miguel '"^ 
San Luis Obisp( 



Purisima Concepcio'n|^santa Inez 

Santa BarBaTa-*,^,,^ San Fernando 

San BeneventuraV^ .San Gabriel 

"(-^ciiBK ^^'•"^•Los Anireles 

SANTA BARBARA \|^ 1^"= •""tt^ies 

San Juan Capistrai 

fSLANDS<t> „ 

San Luis Rey 



san Diego V 



MAP OF EARLY CALIFORNIA 



starvation going overland. Their trail came to be marked by 
the skeletons of men and horses and by the wrecks of 

wagons. Neverthe- 
less, within two 
years after gold was 
discovered Cali- 
fornia had a pop- 
ulation of nearly 
one hundred thou- 
sand white people 
— about twice the 
white population 
of the state of 
Florida and just 
about equal to the 
whole population, 
white and colored, 
of the state of Delaware. These men who had thronged to 
California came from all parts of the country. All were men 
of courage and deter- ^ ^ „-, . 

mination ; some were 
also lawless and un- 
scrupulous. To restrain 
the latter, Vigilance 
Committees were or- 
ganized by which the 
thieves and other crim- 
irials were severely pun- 
ished and in some cases 
put to death. 

These resolute men 
who had risked every- 
thing in seeking their fortunes wanted a government of their 
own. They drew up a state constitution (1849) and applied 
to Congress to be admitted to the Union. 




COLD- DIGGERS OF 49 



304 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Their constitution prohibited slavery. This was done 
because (though all of them hoped soon to make their for- 
tunes) all, in point of fact, were poor ; and they felt that 
poor men, striving hard to get up in the world, would be at a 
disadvantage in this new state if rich men were allowed to 
secure mines and work them by means of slaves. 

ZACHARY TAYLOR, TWELFTH PRESIDENT 

279. The Whigs carry the Election of 1848; the Great Com- 
promise of 1850. The popularity of General Taylor (sec- 
tion 275) enabled the Whigs to elect him president (1848). 
And then the discussion with regard to the new territory 
began in earnest. 

The debates between Northerners and Southerners in Con- 
gress were carried on in such a violent temper that it looked 
for a while as if the Union was certainly going to break up. 
Clay for the third time brought about a compromise (sec- 
tions 235, 248). It was agreed (i) that California should be 
admitted as a free state 1(2) that in all the rest of the terri- 
tory ceded by Mexico^ slaveholders should be permitted to 
settle with their slaves ; (3) it was also agreed that Congress 
should enact a Fugitive Slave Law, under which runaway 
slaves could be pursued by their masters into the free states, 
captured, and taken back into slavery. This agreement was 
the famous Compromise of 1850, sometimes called the Great 
Compromise. 

^That is, south of the parallel 42°, the old boundary of Mexico (section 
235), and west of the line of 1819 (section 234). The Oregon country 
north of 42° was already free soil (see map, p. 258). At this same time 
the present northwestern boundary of Texas was agreed upon. Texas gave 
up her claim to all land between the Arkansas and the Rio Grande north 
and west of her present territory. 



TEXAS, OREGON, CALIFORNIA 305 

SUMMARY 

While democracy was being established in the United States 
some of our people had crossed the Western frontier and estab- 
lished the republic of Texas. When Van Buren (Democrat) 
succeeded Jackson as president we were considering the annexation 
of Texas to the United States. The discussion was interrupted 
by the panic of 1837. Van Buren refused to come to the aid of 
business and laid down as a principle of his party that business 
questions should be kept out of politics. A reaction against Van 
Buren, led by those who had suffered in the panic, caused the 
election of William Henry Harrison (Whig). His sudden death 
made Tyler president. He disposed of two problems in foreign rela- 
tions : ( I ) a dispute with England over the northern boundary of 
Maine was settled by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842); 
(2) Texas was annexed (1845). Another dispute with England 
concerned the Oregon country. The next president, Polk (Demo- 
crat), settled the dispute by treaty (1846). Meanwhile war had 
broken out with Mexico (1846). During the war Americans who 
had settled in California proclaimed the Californian republic, which 
joined the United States. Peace was made by the treaty of 
Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848). A dispute whether slavery should 
exist in the ceded territory began with the Wilmot Proviso 
(1846), and was greatly complicated by the sudden forma- 
tion in California of a free state composed of hardy gold-seekers 
(1849) who were opposed to slavery. In the midst of the 
dispute the Whigs elected General Taylor president. In 1850 
a compromise was effected, largely through the influence of Clay, 
by which (i) California was admitted as a free state, (2) the rest 
of the Mexican cession was opened to slavery, and (3) Congress 
was to enact a fugitive-slave law. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : Barrows, Oregoft, 160-254; Bassett, United States, 
chap, xxi, 419-427; BoGART, Economic History of the United States, 
chap, xxi ; Brigham, Geographic Influences, chap, x ; Callender, Eco- 
nomic History, chap, xi ; Davis, Rise and Fall of the Confederate 
Government, I, chaps, ii, iii ; DoDD, Expansioti and Conflict, chaps, vii- 
ix; *'E'Li.\OTT, Samuel Houston, 21-72; Garrison, Texas and Westward 



3o6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Expansion, chaps, i-xvii, xix, xx ; Harding, Select Orations, 267-291; 
Hart, Contemporaries, HI, chap, xxix ; IV, chap, ii ; Johnson, Readings, 
370-415; Lodge, Daniel IVebster; McMaster, ///V/t'/j, V, chap, liii ; 
VL chap. Ix ; VH, chaps. Ixxv-lxxviii, Ixxxv ; VUI, chap. Ixxxvi ; Macy, 
The Antislavery Crusade (Chronicles of America), chaps, vi-viii ; Muzzey, 
Readings, 312-345; Rhodes, History, I, chaps, i-v ; Royce, Cali- 
fornia; SCHURZ, Hetiry Clay, \\, chap, xxvi ; Skinner, Adventurers 
of Oregon (Chronicles of America); S.mith, The War with Mexico; 
Stephenson, Texas and the Mexican War (Chronicles of America); 
White, The Forty-Niners (Chronicles of America). 

For the Pupil: Barker and Others, Short History of Texas; Bar- 
STOW, The J f 'estward iUo7>enu'nt (ly ^-igi) and A AVwA^iJ/Z^w (138-159); 
Bruce, The Romance of American Expansion, chaps, v, vi, 28-103- 
Davis, Utider Six Flags ; Drake, The Making of the Great IVest, 215- 
240, 271-284 ; Elliott, Samuel Houston ; Elson, Sidelights, chap, xiii ; 
Paris, Makers (chap, xv) and Real Stories (chaps, xx, xxvi, xxvii); Hitch- 
cock, 77/^ Louisiana Purchase, chaps, xxi-xxiii ; Lane and Hill, American 
History in Literature, 128-145 > Nicolay, Our Nation in the Building, 
chap, xvii ; Parkman, The Oregon Trail; Paxson, The Last American 
Frontier, chaps, v-vii ; Pennybacker, History of Texas; Sexton, 
Stories of California ; Sparks, Expansion of the American People, 
chap, xxviii ; Wright, American Progress, chap. xvi. 



PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. How was Texas settled? 2. Why did the Texans go to war with 
Mexico? [3. Write an account of the defense of the Alamo. (See 
Barker, School History of Texas ; Garrison, Texas ; Pennybacker, 
History of Texas, especially the notes on events at the Alamo.)] 
[4. Write an essay on Sam Houston. (See Barker; Pennybacker; 
Elliott, Sam Houston; Stephenson, Texas and the Mexican TFar.)] 
5. Why did the proposal to admit Texas to the Union cause a dispute 
in the United States ? [6. E.xplain what a panic is. Tell what you think 
would happen among your own friends if they should be involved in a 
panic like that of 1837. (See McMaster, History, \l, or any large his- 
tory of the United States.)] 

7. What was Van Buren's attitude toward business problems? What 
party, in the main, has maintained this position ever since ? [8. Com- 
pare the difference between Whigs and Democrats in 1840 with the 
difference between Federalists and Democrats. (See sections 198, 216, 
249, 250 ; also Johnson. Union and Democracy, chap, vi ; Fess, Political 
Theory, chaps, ii, iii, vi.)] [9. Tell the story of our occupation of 



TEXAS, OREGON, CALIFORNIA 307 

Oregon. (See sections 221, 272, 273; also Parkman, The Oregoti Trail; 
Skinner, Adventurers of Oregon.)^ 

10. How did we become involved in a quarrel with Mexico ? 
II. How did the war begin? [12. Tell the story of one of three 
American expeditions into Mexico — Taylor's march to Buena Vista; 
Scott's march to Mexico City ; Kearny's march to Santa Fe and on to 
California. (See Smith, The War with Mexico ; Stephenson, Texas 
and the Mexican War, chaps, vii, viii.)] [13. Tell the story of the war 
in California. (See Royce, California ; White, The Forty-Niners, 
chap, ii.)] 14. What happened in California soon after the war? 
[15. Describe a journey from New York to Cahfornia in 1840 either 
by ship or wagon. (See Dana, Two Years before the Mast; Barstow, 
The Westward Movement, 1 75-191 ; Bruce, The Romance of American 
Expansioji, chap, vi ; Drake, The Making of the Great West, 271-284; 
Faris, Real Stories from Our History, chap, xxvii ; White, The Forty- 
Niners, Chronicles of America.)] 

[16. Write an essay on the Vigilance Committees: how the Cali- 
fornians ruled themselves without a government. (Use the same refer- 
ences as are given in problem 15.)] 17. Why did the constitution drawn 
up by the Forty-niners prohibit slavery? 18. Why was there a dis- 
cussion of slavery at this time in the East (the Wilmot Proviso)? 
19. What were the terms of Clay's Compromise of 1850? [20. In 
what parts of the country was slavery now (1850) illegal? (Answer 
these questions either in writing or by drawing a map ; see sections 235, 
278, 279, and map on page 321.)] 




THE FIRST MAIL CARRIER ACROSS THE WESTERN PLAINS 

These horsemen were called the "pony express" 



SK^a'^i^^'^raomaaaiaaKaig&i^^-catKaaaK^a^^ 








1 JL Ji n iL ji J Jii21L'123i;£ilH2.iS' 



AMERICAN CLIPPER SHIPS AT HONGKONG 



CHAPTER X\ TI 

SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHANGES 

280. Changes between 1840 and 1850 : Area; Population. In 
the ten years previous to 1850 so many changes took place 
that altogether they amounted to a revolution in American 
life. First of all, there was the immense increase in area 
which gave to the United States the shape on the map with 
which we are now familiar. We possessed 1,793,326 square 
miles in 1840 and 2,995,536 miles in 1850. The new terri- 
tory acquired in those ten years was larger by nearly 400,000 
square miles than the whole area of our country at the treaty 
of peace in 1783,^ and was one third as large as the whole 
continent of Europe. 

There was not, of course, a corresponding increase in 
population, but the increase was large. The 17,000,000 
of our people in 1840 had become 23,000,000 in 1850. 

Of the people living in our country in 1850 a large num- 
ber had recently arrived from Ireland. The cause of their 

^Thc area in 1783 was somewhat over 800,000 square miles. 
308 



SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHANGES 



309 



coming shows how the conditions of one country will at 
times have an important effect upon another. In Ireland be- 
tween 1840 and 1850 occurred the potato famine, when the 
crops failed and great numbers of people were on the verge 




ST. LOUIS RIVER FROI-JT IN 1840 

of Starvation. They sought relief by coming to the United 
States. They came just when we were in need of labor to 
build railways and develop the West.^ 

281. Our Early Railways. We have seen that in 1830 we 
had but 23 miles of railroad. In 1840 we had 2818 miles; 
in 1850 we had 9021 miles. The building of railroads went 
on so rapidly that in i860 we had more than 30,000 miles 
of track. 

However, as late as 1850 it was still impossible to go from 
New York to Chicago altogether by rail. The middle part 
of the journey — from Buffalo to Detroit — had to be made by 
boat. Three years later this gap was filled, and passengers 
went the whole way from New York to Chicago by rail. 
Six years afterwards (1859) there was a continuous line 
from New Yoik to New Orleans. 

282. The Electric Telegraph; Labor-Saving Machines. One 
of the greatest changes between 1840 and 1850 was caused 

1 Between 1840 and 1850 we received 780,719 Irish immigrants. 



310 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

by the invention of the telegraph. In 1840 the telegraph did 
not exist; in 1850 there were 5000 miles of telegraph lines 
in operation.^ 

Many other inventions which we have learned to take for 
granted and which have had a profound effect upon our 
lives had just come into use in 1850. The sewing machine, 
for example, was only four years old, having been invented 
by Elias Howe in 1846. Still younger was the rotary print- 
ing press, the invention of Richard Hoe (1847), which revo- 
lutionized the whole industry of bookmaking. We have 
seen what had already been accomplished by the McCormick 
reaper (section 255). These and many other machines en- 
abled a few men to do as much work as was once accom- 
plished by the slow labor of a much larger number of workers. 

283. The Conquest of the Sea; Clipper Ships; Maury. In 
no respect has modern science made greater strides than in 
its discoveries and inventions that concern the sea. Ameri- 
cans may claim to have been pioneers in this modern con- 
quest of the sea. Later the American ''clippers" reached the 
highest excellence ever attained by sailing vessels. These 
swift ships — three-masted and carrying a great mass of 
sails — were among the most beautiful as well as the most 
practical of human inventions. 

A great scientist, Matthew Fontaine Maury of V^irginia, 
who became superintendent of the Naval Observatory 
(1844), showed the sailors how to lay out the best routes 

1 This wonderful invention is the work of Samuel F. B. Morse, who was 
born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 179 1. In 1832 he conceived the idea 
that an electric current conveyed by wires might carry signals an indefinite 
distance. After long experimenting he designed two machines connected by 
wires charged with electricity. Moving a lever in one machine caused a 
corresponding movement in the other. It is the striking, rising, striking 
again, of these levers that produces the click-click of the telegraph. The first 
telegraphic message was sent from Washington to Baltimore, May 24, 1844. 
The line between the two cities had been constructed with $30,000 given 
Morse by Congress, in order to demonstrate his invention. Today, inside 
the United States are some 1,500,000 miles of telegraph line. 




ABOVE, SHIPS OF COLUMBUS (FIFTEENTH CENTURY) ; CENTER 

RIGHT, MAN OF WAR (EIGHTEENTH CENTURY) ; CENTER LEFT, 

CLIPPER SHIP (nineteenth CENTURY) ; STEAMER BELOW, 

MAURETANIA (TWENTIETH CENTURY) 



312 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

upon the ocean. He was able to do this through long study 
of the trade winds and the ocean currents. He became 
known as the Pathfinder of the Sea. 

Maury's discoveries and the skill of American shipbuilders 
enabled us to take advantage of a British law enacted in 
1849. Before then American-built ships could not be pur- 
chased by Englishmen and sailed under the British flag. 

The new law permitted this. At 
that time both England and 
America carried on an extensive 
trade with China. Americans 
had started our ''China trade" 
as far back as 1784, in the 
troubled times when we could 
not trade wath Europe (Chap- 
ter X), and our merchants had 
to make a fresh start. In this 
trade our swift clipper ships 
proved themselves so admirable 

DOROTHEA DIX ^ 

that Englishmen began using 
them in preference to their own ships the moment the law 
made it possible. Already Charles Dickens had written of 
''the noble American vessels which have made their packet 
service the finest in the world." 

284. Increasing Activity of Women. Nothing is more 
characteristic of American progress during the nineteenth 
century than the steadily increasing share of women 
in public life. Their influence has generally been exerted in 
the way of correcting abuses or of protecting the unfor- 
tunate. Among many able women of the middle of the cen- 
tury none is more worthy of notice than Dorothea Dix, whose 
life work was the reform of prisons. Her book "Prisons and 
Prison Discipline" may be looked upon as the beginning of 
our modern scientific and humane attitude toward "charities 
and corrections." 




SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHANGES 



313 



285. Postage Stamps; Street Cars; Magazines; Newspapers. 
Thousands of things that now we think we cannot do with- 
out, from postage stamps to street cars, were just coming into 
use in 1850. A striking novelty was Harper's Magazine, 
which began to appear in 1850 and was our first illustrated 



^ 


M 


^ 








1^^ 


-^ 


H 


M 


\ 






1 


1 




r 


> 


'' 






t 


i 


#■ 




HENRY W. LONGFELLOW 



EDGAR ALLAN POE 



monthly. Our newspapers and periodicals numbered 2526.^ 
Only the year before (1849) ^ number of papers had com- 
bined in an organization of which, today, we hear so much — 
the Associated Press. 

286. The Writers of 1850. Many of the best-known 
writers of our country appeared shortly before 1850. Among 
these was our most famous novelist, Nathaniel Hawthorne. 
Conspicuous among the other new writers were three poets, 
all from New England. Whittier had begun publishing his 
idyls of New England life as well as his poems against slav- 
ery ; Lowell had recently become famous as the author of 
the '^Biglow Papers." But the best-loved author in 1850 

^In 1920 the number was nearly fifty thousand. 



314 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Only three years had 
passed since the publication of "Evangeline." The charm- 
ing Southern poet, Henry Timrod, began publishing soon 
after 1850. 

287. The Discovery of Anaesthetics. But of all the new 
things that make 1850 seem the beginning of our own time, 
few are more important than certain discoveries of how to re- 
lieve pain. These discoveries were made about the same date 
by medical men in three different places. The credit for 
discovering the use of ether, by means of which surgical 
operations may be performed without pain, is usually given 
to Dr. W. T. G. Morton and Dr. C. T. Jackson, both of 
Boston. Their success was demonstrated at the Massachu- 
setts General Hospital in 1846. They did not know that 
Dr. Crawford W. Long of Georgia had made the same discov- 
ery four years before. Another discoverer on anaesthetics was 
Dr. Horace Wells of Vermont, who began in 1844 to use 
'^ laughing gas" in extracting teeth. 

288. The German Exiles. Americans took a keen interest 
in what is known as the Revolution of 1848, which may be 
called the extension of the French Revolution (section 199) 
into Germany. All sorts of people, from university profes- 
sors to laborers, joined in a desperate attempt to make the 
German countries democratic. In parts of Germany they 
came near succeeding. But the great power of the Prussian 
king and the Austrian emperor stamped out the revolution, 
and many thousands of the best men of Germany had 
to flee for their lives to other lands. It was but natural 
that Americans should welcome to their republic these mar- 
tyrs in the cause of free government. ]\Iany found refuge 
among us. Some, because of the great business opportunities 
of America, soon acquired fortunes. Some were distinguished 
by their intellectual ability. An instance was Carl Schurz, 
who lived to be a cabinet officer in his adopted country.^ 

^ Secretary of the Interior under President Hayes. 



SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHANGES 315 

289. The Generosity of the United States. No other coun- 
try was ever so generous toward foreigners as ours has been. 
The American enthusiasm for democracy which triumphed 
about 1830 (section 265) was not selfish. American demo- 
crats wanted to share their good fortune with the poor and 
the oppressed in all parts of the world. We took this attitude 
especially with respect to the public land. Immigrants 
were allowed to profit by our land laws as freely as native 
Americans. By a law passed in 1820 the price of public 
land had been fixed at $1.25 the acre; the purchaser was 
allowed to ''preempt" his land — that is, settle upon it and 
take a long time in which to pay. A considerable farm might 
thus be acquired by paying only a few dollars each year. 
Practically this was giving the land away. Through pre- 
emption great numbers of poor immigrants became pros- 
perous American landholders. 

290. The Great Difference between 1850 and Today. In 
one respect our country in 1850 was strikingly different 
from our country today. All the writers mentioned, all the 
intelligent newcomers, in fact, all the people in the Union, 
were discussing the same question which Webster and Hayne 
had debated so ably twenty years before (section 246) — 
the question, If my state and Congress disagree, which must 
I obey? 

291. Why Many People believed in States' Rights. We must 
not fail to understand why many people, in all parts of our 
country, once held the states' rights idea and felt that their 
state had a right to withdraw from the Union whenever it 
pleased. In such a vast country as ours it was easy, in the 
days before steam and electricity, for different parts to 
become so unlike that their inhabitants should feel toward 
the inhabitants of other sections almost as they felt toward 
foreigners. Today, when steam and electricity have linked 
us all close together, this is scarcely possible, but in 1850 
the linking together by means of railroads and the telegraph 



3i6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

was just beginning. The people of different sections knew 
little of one another and did not understand the true needs 
of other sections than their own ; therefore whenever they 
could get control of Congress they did not scruple to pass 
laws that were wholly in their own interests. We have seen 
how this was done in the case of the Tariff of Abominations 
(section 242). It was largely out of fear that a number of 
powerful states might at any moment combine to injure the 
others that so many people insisted on their right to leave 
the Union whenever they thought best. 

292. Why Many People believed in Nationalism. But we 
have seen that the national idea, or '^ nationalism," had led 
Webster to say that it was his duty to fight against his state 
if the Union as a whole demanded it (section 246), and a 
great many other men had come, by degrees, to hold the 
same view. In bringing this about, the railroads had had a 
great share. If you will look at a railroad map of 1850 
you will see that the main railways lay east and west and 
that most of them were in the North ; in other words, the 
people of the Northern states had come to be closely linked 
together by a network of railroads. This network extended 
into the West and linked the Westerners and Easterners in 
close bonds. All their people had come to know and under- 
stand each other. They had come to feel for each other 
as for members of one family. By degrees they left off 
thinking very much about their states, but they thought a 
great deal about the country as a whole. They wanted it to 
become great and powerful — as great and powerful as any 
country in the world. Therefore, if anyone proposed in any 
way to reduce the extent of the country and thus reduce its 
power — which would happen if a state seceded — they im- 
mediately grew angry; they felt that such a proposal was 
wicked. 

293. The Threatened Clash between States' Rights and Na- 
tionalism. These two ways of thinking about our country — 



SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHANGES 317 

as a league of sovereign states or as a great single power — 
were thrillingly expressed in the debates over the Compro- 
mise in 1850. Clay, Calhoun, and Webster, who had for 
so long been the leaders of their countrymen, were the chief 
speakers. Once more, as in the nullification episode, nearly 
twenty years before (section 247), Calhoun warned Con- 
gress that if a satisfactory agreement was not reached the 
dissatisfied states would withdraw from the Union. There- 
upon Clay and Webster used language that astounded the 
country. Clay went so far as to say that if Calhoun should 
attempt to produce disunion "he would be a traitor, and I 
hope will meet the fate of a traitor." Said Webster: ^'I 
hear with distress and anguish the word 'secession.' . . . 
Disruption will produce war, and such a war as I will not 
describe." 

The Compromise, for the moment, put an end to threats 
on both sides, but the question whether one's state or the 
Congress of the United States had the first claim upon one's 
obedience was from that day, until the outbreak of the war, 
in 1 86 1, the most serious question in all men's minds. 

SUMMARY 

Th^ ten years between 1840 and 1850 witnessed many 
important changes in American life. Immigrants steadily in- 
creased in number, especially from Ireland. There was a rapid 
increase in railways, though it was not until 1853 that a con- 
tinuous line led from New York to Chicago, and not until 1859 
was there a line all the way from New York to New Orleans. Sev- 
eral epoch-making discoveries and inventions were made about 
1850. Many things now familiar in everyday life, such as street 
cars and illustrated magazines, date from the middle of the cen- 
tury. A group of distinguished writers appeared just about 1850. 
The enthusiasm for democracy was stimulated by our cordial 
reception of German exiles after their failure to make Germany 
free in the Revolution of 1848. In all material ways the American 
people were extremely well off in 1850. But they had one great 



3i8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

misfortune : they were divided among themselves, the two sections 
holding irreconcilable ideas about the rights and powers of the 
central government. The debates over the Compromise of 1850, 
though they seemed for the moment to have ended in a reconcilia- 
tion of the sections, had made everyone see that the deep, dividing 
difference remained unsettled. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : Bassett, chap, xxii ; *Becker, United States, 
chaps, vi-viii ; Bogart, Economic History, chaps, x, xviii, xxvi ; Brown, 
Lower South in American History, 32-49; Callender, Economic 
History, 271-386, 471-486, 666-689, 711-726; CoMAN, Industrial 
History, 232-278; The Economic Beginnings of the Far West, II, 167- 
331; Dewev, Financial History, 248-274; *D()»d, Expansion and 
Conflict, chap, xii ; The Cotton Kingdom (Chronicles of America); Ingi.e, 
Southern Sidelights, 55-60, 88-94; Johnson, The Age of hn'ention 
(Chronicles of America); Long, History of American Literature, chap, iv; 
McMaster, History, VII, chap. Ixxxvii ; Okth, Our Foreigners (Chron- 
icles of America); Pavne, 'The Old Merchant Marine (Chronicles of 
America); Perry, The American Spirit in Literature (Ciironicles of 
America); Rhodes, History, II, chaps, xi, xii. 

For the Pupil : Faris, Real Stories from Our History, chaps, xvii, xlii, 
xliii ; Great Epochs in American History, VII, 36-52 ; Mowry, America?! 
Inventions and Inventors, 270-277, 2S6-291 ; '^WY.K'M.h.'^, Some Successful 
Americans; Sparks, The Expansion of tlie American People, chap, xxiv; 
Wright, American Progress, chap. xii. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. How could you travel from New York to Chicago in 1850? 
from New York to New Orleans ? from New Orleans to San Antonio ? 
from New Orleans to Charleston ? from Charleston to St. Louis ? from 
St. Louis to San Francisco? (See maps, pp. 490, 491.) 2. What famous 
inventions were made about 1850? [3. These American inventions 
may be regarded as a continuation of the Industrial Revolution (review 
Chapters VII, XII). Make a list of mechanical occupations which an 
American might follow in 1850 that he could not have followed in 
1800. Make another list of the various sorts of work done by 
machinery in 1850 that were done by hand in 1800. (See Coman, 
Industrial History of the United States ; Osgood, History of Industry.)] 
4. How did the China trade begin ? Why did it prosper ? 



SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHANGES 



319 



[5. Write an essay on What Women did in building our Country 
(see Chapters III, IV, VII, XV). What do you know about a 
woman who worked for rehgious freedom (Mrs. Hutchinson) ? one 
who demanded the right to vote (Margaret Brent)? one who started 
an industry (Eliza Lucas)? one who made a change in education 
(Emma Willard) ? one who changed our attitude toward the unfortunate 
(Dorothea Dix)?] 6. Name some of the new things which came into 
use about 1850. 7. Name the chief writers of this period. What did 
they write about ? [8. What do we mean when we say America has 
been the "asylum of the oppressed" ? Tell all you know of immigrants 
seeking freedom in America (see Chapter III). Give two instances of 
American generosity toward unfortunate Europeans (section 288).] 

[9. Imagine yourself a German or Irish boy or girl in 1850 whose 
parents have preempted a farm. Write a letter to a cousin in Europe 
telling how the land was acquired and expressing your feelings toward 
the generous republic that has adopted you.] 10. What great differ- 
ence is there between 1850 and today? 11. What have steam and 
electricity done to bring the parts of our country together? 12. Why 
did many people in 1850 believe in states' rights? 13. How, even in 
1850, had railroads affected the North? 14. Why did Northerners 
believe in nationalism ? 15. What was the great fear in most people's 
minds between 1850 and i860? 




AN OLD-FASHIONED COVERED BRIDGE 




Lincoln's boyhood 



CHAPTER XVIII 



THE SLAVERY ISSUE 



MILLARD FILLMORE. THIRTEENTH PRESIDENT 



294. President Taylor succeeded by Vice President Fill- 
more; the Fugitive Slave Law. President Taylor died in the 
year of the Great Compromise, and the vice president, Mil- 
lard Fillmore of New York, succeeded him (p. 294, note 2). 
During Fillmore's term the dispute over slavery began again 
more bitterly than ever before. 

The Fugitive Slave Law (section 279) soon produced 
trouble. Under this law black people supposed to be run- 
away slaves were seized in the North and carried to the 
South, sometimes with the aid of soldiers. The abolitionists 
at once asserted that some of these blacks were not slaves, 
but free negroes. Other Northerners, who until now had 
paid little attention to slavery, were deeply moved by the 
actual sight of weeping negroes, men and women, carried 
away by armed forces into slavery. So rapid was the spread 
of this sympathetic opposition to the Fugitive Slave Law 

that before long, in many parts of the North, any attempt 

320 



THE SLAVERY ISSUE 



321 



to enforce it was pretty sure to bring on a riot. In Boston, 
when the United States officers arrested a black man named 
Shadrack, a mob took him away from them and carried him 
off to safety (1851). There were other similar happenings. 
Even the legislatures of many Northern states took part in 




UNITED STATES IN 1850 



the movement by passing ^'personal Hberty laws" designed to 
make it difficult to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law.^ 

The runaways were also assisted by a great secret organ- 
ization, which helped them to travel by night from one 
hiding place to another across the North to Canada. So 
skillfully hidden was the work of this organization that it 
was nicknamed the ^'Underground Railroad." No less than 
60,000 slaves were thought to have escaped from the country 
in this way. 

^The national law denied to the accused negro the right to a trial by 
jury. These state laws secured to him such a trial. They formed a defiance 
of Congress on the subject of slavery. They were defended by the aboli- 
tionists, on the ground that there was a higher law than the law of Con- 
gress — a law of humanity — and that this law forbade slavery. 



32 2 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

295. "Uncle Tom's Cabin." In the year of the Great Com- 
promise Harriet Beecher Stowe began writing her famous 
novel "Uncle Tom's Cabin," which was published in 1852. 
Its picture of slaveholding in Kentucky contained so many 
harsh features that it caused a sensation. Two hundred 
thousand copies were sold in a single year. Southerners have 
always denied that ''Uncle Tom's Cabin" gave a correct im- 
pression of slavery, but the important thing is that almost 
everybody in the North accepted its picture as true. To- 
gether with the new indignation over the Fugitive Slave 
Law, "Uncle Tom" roused the feeling of the North to 
fever heat. 

FRANKLIN PIERCE, FOURTEENTH PRESIDENT 

296. New Political Leaders. In 1852 the Democrats elected 
as the fourteenth president Franklin Pierce of New Hamp- 
shire. In this election the parties followed comparatively 
new leaders, such as Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, 
William H. Seward of New York, Salmon P. Chase of 
Ohio, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, Robert Toombs of 
Georgia, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, Judah P. Benjamin 
of Louisiana, John C. Fremont of California, and Samuel 
Houston of Texas. All three of those great rivals who had 
led their countrymen for thirty years — Clay, Calhoun, and 
Webster — died before the end of 1852. 

297. The Exposition of 1853; Perry's Expedition to Japan. 
Though the ill feeling between North and South was steadily 
growing, the country was very prosperous, and new indus- 
tries were springing up year by year. The industrial 
changes mentioned in Chapter XVII caused us to hold our 
first World's Fair at New York in 1853. It was a wonder- 
ful display of American inventiveness. 

Shortly afterwards there took place another important 
event also connected with American business life. Commo- 
dore M. C. Perry, a brother of the "Perry of Lake Erie" 



THE SLAVERY ISSUE 



323 



(section 230), visited Japan with a fleet of American warships. 
For more than two centuries Japan had refused to allow 
foreigners to enter her country. However, Perry succeeded 
in making a treaty with the Japanese government (1854), 
which was the beginning of a great trade between Japan and 
the United States. Our government sent over a locomotive 
and a railway train as presents 
to the emperor of Japan and set 
up a telegraph line for his use. 

298. Dissatisfaction of Slave- 
holders with the Compromise ; 
More Land demanded for Slav- 
ery. Meanwhile, in America, 
the slaveholders had become 
dissatisfied with the Compro- 
mise of 1850. They found that 
the land given to them (see 
map, p. 321) was not adapted 
to cotton-growing, and they saw 
no way to make that land prof- 
itable by- slave labor.^ They 
began 'demanding another agreement between the North 
and the South so that some new region should be opened 
to slavery. There was talk of annexing Cuba or Central 
America, but as this could not be done without war, another 
plan was suggested. Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois 
took the lead in a movement to repeal the Missouri Com- 
promise (section 235), organize new territories west of 
Missouri, and allow the people of each territory to decide 
for themselves whether they wanted slavery or not. 

Senator Douglas's proposal, known as the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill, because it created the two territories Kansas 




STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS 



1 Arizona and New Mexico on investigation were reported to form 
the "Great American Desert." Since then irrigation has turned the "desert" 
into a garden (see page 404). 



324 SC HOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and Nebraska, both of which were to be open to slavery, 
was accepted by Congress and became law (May 30, 1854). 
299. The Rush to Kansas. What happened next revealed 
the fact that large numbers of Northerners would make every 
effort to prevent the extension of slavery in the territories. 
Many of them at once left their homes farther east and 




UNITED STATES IN 1854 

Started for Kansas, which, as the more southerly of the two 
territories, was more likely to be occupied by Southerners. 
The purpose of these immigrants was to settle in Kansas in 
large numbers before the slaveholders could settle there in 
equal strength. Associations were formed to assist the rush 
to Kansas. The most famous of these was the New Eng- 
land Aid Society, formed at Boston. Large sums of money 
were subscribed to aid the settlers in acquiring new homes. 
Whittier wrote the song of ''The Kansas Emigrants" as a 
statement of the feeling that underlay this migration. 

Slaveholders also took part in the rush to Kansas. At 
first they did not come as rapidly as did the Northerners, 
but they came in considerable 9,nd fast-increasing numbers. 



THE SLAVERY ISSUE 



325 



In a short while each side had its own group of towns. 
The slaveholders made their headquarters at Atchison, 
Leavenworth, and Lecompton. The chief towns of the anti- 
slavery settlers were Lawrence and Topeka. 

300. War in Kansas. Both sides were in that bitter and 
passionate frame of mind which produces war. Disputes 
between settlers led to fights, 
and in a short time there was 
a civil war in Kansas. It was 
what we call guerrilla war- 
fare, very like the partisan 
warfare of the Revolution 
(section 175), and the forces 
engaged were few in num- 
ber; but in fury and vio- 
lence it was, alas, second to 
no war fought in our coun- 
try. Among its most terrible 
events two are conspicuous : 
(i) the capture and plun- 
dering by slaveholders of 
the antislavery town of Law- 
rence ( 1856 ) ; ( 2 ) the reprisal 
by John Brown, a noted antislavery leader, who seized a 
number of slaveholders and deliberately put them to death. 




FRANCES WRIGHT 

A prominent abolitionist of the 
middle of the century 



JAMES BUCHANAN, FIFTEENTH PRESIDENT 

301. The Republican Party; Election of 1856. The oppo- 
nents of slavery now drew together^ in a new political party 
which took the name " Republican." 

In 1856 the Republicans nominated as their first candi- 
date for president John C. Fremont of California, the 
famous '' Pathfinder" (section 276). In their platform 

^The Whig party broke up about 1854. Its antislavery members sooner 
or later became Republicans ; its slavery members became Democrats. 



32 6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

they demanded the prohibition of slavery in the territories 
and the admission of Kansas as a free state. They were 
defeated by the Democrats, whose candidate was James 
Buchanan of Pennsylvania. 

302. The Dred Scott Decision. Two days after the inau- 
guration of Buchanan the Supreme Court rendered a decision 
in the case of Dred Scott, a negro slave who had asked to be 
declared a free man because his master had taken him 
(1834) into the free state of Illinois and later into the free 
territory of Minnesota, but had afterwards brought him 
back to Missouri. Scott claimed his freedom because he had 
lived on free soil. The court refused to pronounce him free 
and decided that Scott was not a citizen of ]\Iissouri, but 
merely a piece of property and therefore not entitled to 
bring suit before the court. In giving its reasons the court 
laid down a principle that startled the country, delighting 
the friends of slavery and infuriating its enemies : this was 
that Congress had had no right to pass its law, the Missouri 
Compromise (section 235) prohibiting slavery in a territory, 
and therefore that no such laws were binding. 

303. Significance of the Dred Scott Decision ; Abraham Lin- 
coln. Thus the Dred Scott decision gave the slaveholders 
permission to take their slaves to any of the territories, no 
matter whether Congress approved or not. The Republicans 
at once denounced the decision in the most unsparing terms. 
A Republican from Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, now drew 
upon himself the attention of the whole country by a series 
of remarkable speeches. In one of them he used these 
words: ''A house divided against itself cannot stand. I 
believe that this government cannot endure permanently 
half slave and half free." 

In a famous debate with Douglas (section 298), Lincoln 
showed himself one of the clearest thinkers and ablest de- 
baters in his party. He was also of a wonderfully gentle 
nature, and though he hated slavery he had no harsh words 



THE SLAVERY ISSUE 



327 



for slaveholders. His views were similar to those of Chan- 
ning (section 258), and yet he spoke of slavery as ''a thing 
which has, and continually exercises, the power of making 
me miserable." 

304. John Brown's Raid. In the midst of these disputes 
our whole people, North and South, were astounded by 
something that took place at Harpers Ferry. John Brown 




THE LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DEBATES 

(section 300) some time before had disappeared from Kan- 
sas. This grim man had no sympathy with the views of such 
temperate opponents of slavery as Channing (section 259) 
and Lincoln (section 303). He planned to destroy slave- 
holding in a widespread uprising of the slaves, which he in- 
tended to lead himself. With that end in view he made his 
way to the mountains of western Maryland, where he gath- 
ered about him a little band of about twenty followers. 
With these men he suddenly descended from the mountains, 
entered Harpers Ferry, and sent out a call to the slaves of 
the neighborhood to rise and join his band. But the slaves 
did not rise. Soldiers were hurried to Harpers Ferry. 



X - -i' 




328 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Brown was besieged in an engine house he had fortified. 
After several men had been killed he was captured. He 
was tried and eventually hanged (December 2, 1859). 

305. The Relation of the Sections in i860 ; Lincoln Elected. 
It is impossible for us, today, to appreciate the intensity of 
the feelings of our grandparents and great-grandparents with 

regard to John Brown. 
Though most of the 
Northern people at 
once condemned his 
undertaking, there 
were many abolition- 
ists who pronounced 
him a martyr. They 
JOHN BROWN s FORT "scd thc most passion- 

ate and terrible lan- 
guage not only with regard to slavery but also with regard 
to everyone who held a slave and would not consent to 
immediate abolition. 

The Southerners replied with equal bitterness. Many of 
them did not believe in slavery and wished to get rid of it. 
but these now joined with the friends of slavery in condemn- 
ing every suggestion that came from the North. The fact 
that Brown had aimed at a slave insurrection was what 
united all Southerners, no matter how they felt about slavery, 
in one solid party, demanding ^'to be let alone." There was 
nothing the South dreaded so much as a great slave insur- 
rection, such as Nat Turner had attempted (section 259). 
If such an uprising once got well started, the plantation 
houses widely separated one from another would be incapable 
of defense. In Nat Turner's Rebellion houses were burned 
and families massacred as in the old days of the Indian wars 
(section 95). 

Meanwhile the ''balance" in the Senate (section 235) had 
been upset by the admission of California (section 279). 



THE SLAVERY ISSUE 329 

One reason why the Southerners had tried so hard to secure 
Kansas (section 298) was their desire to restore the ''bal- 
ance" of states. They failed also to prevent the admis- 
sion of the free states of Minnesota (1858) and Oregon 
(1859). In the House of Representatives the free states 
had now one hundred and forty-four members, the slave 
states only ninety. This fact made the Southerners still more 
uneasy. ''If the Republicans elect the next president," said 
many Southerners, "we won't stay in the Union. The 
North could then enact what laws it pleased." In South 
Carolina, especially, threats of secession were frequently 
heard. 

While North and South were each in a quiver of excitement 
the election of i860 was held. The Republican platform de- 
nounced John Brown's raid as "lawless and unjustifiable"; 
it promised not to interfere with slavery in the states 
where it was established ; at the same time it strongly con- 
demned the Dred Scott decision and asserted that slavery 
must be unconditionally prohibited in all the territories. 
On this platform the Republicans elected Abraham Lincoln, 
sixteenth president of the United States. 

SUMMARY 

During the administration of President Fillmore (Whig), who 
followed Harrison, the slavery dispute broke out more fiercely 
than ever, owing partly to the attempts to enforce the Fugitive 
Slave Law, partly to the appearance of "Uncle Tom's Cabin." 
The Southerners were becoming discontented because Arizona 
and New Mexico did not seem adapted to slave labor. During 
the administration of Franklin Pierce (Democrat), a move- 
ment to open the Northwest to slave-owning settlers brought 
about the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854), which permitted set- 
tlers in a territory to decide the matter for themselves. There 
was a rush of settlers, both Northern and Southern, into the new 
territory of Kansas — the Northerners wishing to organize a free 
state ; the Southerners, a slave state. A civil war broke out in 



330 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Kansas. These events led to the break-up of the Whig party, 
whose members could not come to an agreement on the slavery- 
question. A new Republican party was now formed in opposi- 
tion to the extension of slavery. In 1856 they were defeated by 
the Democrats, who elected James Buchanan president. The next 
year, in the Dred Scott case, the Supreme Court decided that 
slavery could not in any way be excluded from a territory until 
after the territory had become a state. Abraham Lincoln now be- 
came a national figure through his speeches against slavery. Feel- 
ing was becoming tense all over the country when suddenly 
John Brown appeared at Harpers Ferry and attempted to rouse 
the slaves of the vicinity in an insurrection. He failed and was 
taken and executed. But this incident roused the feeling on both 
sides to fever heat. In i860 the Republicans nominated Lincoln 
for the presidency. Many Southerners threatened secession in the 
event of his election. In i860 Lincoln was elected president. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : Bassett, United States, chap, xxiii ; Brown, Lower 
South, 50-82; Cali.ender, Ecoiiouiic History, ch^i^. xv \ Charnwood, 
Abraham Lincoln ; Da Vis, Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, I, Part III ; 
DoDD, Expansion and Conflict (chaps, xi-xiii) znd. Jeffe/son Davis (130- 
191); Fess, Political Theory, chaps, xiii-xv ; Hardi.xg, Select Orations, 
309-341; Hart, Contemporaries, III, chaps, viii-ix ; IV, chap, vii ; 
Hitchcock, The Louisiana Purchase, chap, xxv ; Johnson, Readings 
{^ii-i\z,2,)dLnd Stephen Arnold Douglas; Macdonald, Source Book, 405- 
433 ; McMaster, History, VIII, chaps. Ixxxvi, Ixxxix, xc, xci, xciii, xcvi ; 
Nicolay, Abraham Lincoln, chaps, vii-ix ; Phillips, The South in the 
Building of the Nation, IV, 398-422 ; Rhodes, History, I, chap, v ; 
II, chaps, vii-xii ; Smith, Parties and Slavery, chaps, vii-xvii ; Stanwood, 
History of the Presidency, chap, xxi ; Siephknson, Abraham Lincoln 
and the Union (Chronicles of America), chaps, i-v ; Whittier, Anti- 
slavery Poems; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 90-100. 

For the Pupil : Coffin, Building the Nation ; Drake, The Making 
of the Great West; Eggleston, Two Gentlemen of Virginia (fiction); 
Elson, Sidelights (chap. xv) and Great Epochs (VII, 144-149, 164-168); 
Gale and Wheki.ek, A Knight of the Middle /IVj^/ (fiction); Hart, Con- 
temporaries, IV, 56-122; MuzzEV, Readings, 346-387; Sparks, Ex- 
pansion of the American People, chap. xxix. 



THE SLAVERY ISSUE 



331 



PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

[i. The opening of Japan may be considered the turning point of a 
tendency for American trade to shift from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
Write a brief account of the development of our commerce to 1855. 
Answer these questions : With what countries did we trade in colonial 
days? When did we begin to trade with Asia in our own ships? 
Why ? How did California stimulate our interest in Pacific trade ? ] 
2. How did the rivalry of the sections begin again ? 

3. What demand did the South make because it was disappointed 
with regard to the West ? 4. What did Douglas accomplish in the 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill? [5. Describe the rush to Kansas. (See Dodd, 
Expansion and Cofiflict, chap, vii ; McMaster, History, VIII, chaps. 
Ixxxvi, Ixxxix, xc ; Macy, The Antislavery Crusade (Chronicles of 
America); Rhodes, History, II, chap, vii; Whittier, poems on Kansas. 
These references will have to be adapted by the teacher.)] 6. What 
new political party now appeared? How was it formed? What did 
it aim to do? 7. What principle did the court lay down in the case 
of Dred Scott ? 8. What was the significance of this principle, that 
Congress could not forbid slavery in the territories ? g. What great 
man now became prominent ? What do you know about him ? 

10. What was Lincoln's attitude toward slavery? 11. What did 
John Brown try to do at Harpers Ferry? 12. Describe the feehng of 
the country over John Brown. 13. What now was the relation of the 
sections in Congress? [14. Why was the North more populous in i860 
than the South ? (The clue to the answer is in the experience of 
Cahfornia. What is it? Why did the immigrants, for example, go to 
the North almost altogether, instead of to the South? See section 278 
for a hint as to the answer.)] 15. Why did Southerners threaten to 
secede if the Republicans carried the election of i860? 




A W^ESTERN MINING PLANT 

Great silver mines were opened in the West in 1859 




THK B01\IBARDMENT OF FORT SUMTER 



CHAPTER XIX 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 



I. THE DISRUPTION OF THE UNION AND THE FORMA- 
TION OF THE CONFEDERACY 

306. South Carolina secedes ; Six Other States Follow. 
A convention was called in South Carolina, which, on Decem- 
ber 2 0, i860, at Charleston, voted unanimously "that the 
union now subsisting between South Carolina and other 
states, under the name of the United States of America, 
is hereby dissolved." The announcement of this action 
caused a great demonstration of joy in the streets of 
Charleston. Bells were rung and cannon were fired. The 
proud state delighted in the thought that now it was certainly 
a "free, independent, and sovereign" power.' 

1 This tragic event should be looked upon not as the result of any one 
cause but as the result of slowly developing differences, some of which 
were more than two hundred years old. For the full story of the gradual 
drifting apart of the North and South, review sections 40-42, 70-72, 130-133, 
23s, 241, 243, 246, 259, 267, 271, 277-270, 290-305. 

332 



i86o. Flag displayed in the Secession Con- 
vention at Charleston. The design was 
based on the state flag of South Carolina. 




1861. This design, known as the "Stars and 
Bars," was adopted by the Montgomery 
Convention. 




1 86 1. The armies adopted unofficially this 
flag, known as the " Southern Cross." 
The Stars and Bars had been mistaken in 
battle for the Stars and Stripes. 




1863. The official flag of the Confederacy, 
adopted in 1863. Subsequently a red 
stripe was added perpendicularly along 
the outer edge. This was done chiefly 
for use in the navy. When hanging idle 
from a mast the flag of 1863 sometimes 
appeared all white. 




CONFEDERATE FLAGS 



334 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Six other states — Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, 
Louisiana, Texas — rapidly followed the example of South 
Carolina. Delegates from the seceding states met at Mont- 
gomery, Alabama, which they fixed upon as the capital of 
their new "Confederate states of America." They also 

elected a president, Jefferson 
Davis of Mississippi, and a 
vice president, Alexander H. 
Stephens* of Georgia. To 
make a flag for the Confed- 
eracy they altered the familiar 
design of the Stars and Stripes 
and raised instead of it the 
Stars and Bars (see illustra- 
tion on page 333).' 

307. The Question of the 
Southern Forts, On an island 
in Charleston harbor stood 
Fort Sumter, garrisoned by 
Federal soldiers and com- 
manded by Major Robert 
Anderson. Its surrender was demanded by the state author- 
ities and refused b}^ Anderson. A merchant ship, the Star of 
the West, carrying supplies to Sumter, was fired on by state 
forces and compelled to put back to sea (January 9, 1861). 
When Lincoln was inaugurated Major Anderson still held 
Fort Sumter. 

In his inaugural address the new president used the 
significant words given on the following page: 

1 Stephens led a strong party in the South that opposed secession. How- 
ever, he believed it was his duty to obey the commands of his state, and 
when Georgia seceded he gave his loyalty to the new government. 

-As each state seceded, its senators and representatives left Washington. 
Presently there were so few Southerners remaining in Congress that the 
Northerners had no difficulty in admitting Kansas as a free state (January, 
1861). 




JEFFERSON DAVIS 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 335 

I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the 
institution of slavery in the States where it exists. . , . No state 
upon its own mere motion can lawfully get out of the Union. . . . 
The Union is unbroken ; and to the extent of my ability I shall 
take care . . . that the laws of the Union be faithfully executed 
in all the states. . . . The power confided to me will be used to 
hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to 
the government. 

He speedily gave notice to Governor Pickens of South 
Carolina that Fort Sumter should be freshly supplied and 
held by the forces of the United States.^ 

308. The Firing on Sumter; Rising of the North. Presi- 
dent Davis decided to compel the surrender of Fort Sum- 
ter. General P. G. T. Beauregard of Louisiana, who had 
been put in command of the South Carolina militia, opened 
fire early in the morning of April 12, 1861. Shells rained 
on Fort Sumter all that day and part of the next. Ander- 
son replied, but his ammunition soon gave out, and as he 
had but a small supply of food he agreed to surrender. On 
Sunday, April 14, the Stars and Stripes were hauled down, 
and the garrison marched out of the fort, went aboard 
ship, and sailed for New York. The fort was in ruins, and 
yet, strangely enough, not one man had been killed on 
either side. 

The next day (April 15, 1861) Lincoln issued a call for 
75,000 volunteer soldiers.- It was quickly answered by 
100,000. Through all the Northern states there went up a 
fierce cry for vengeance because the flag of the Union had 
been fired upon. 

1 Previously Seward (section 2q6), whom Lincoln had made Secretary of 
State, had told Southern commissioners who had been sent to Washington 
that Sumter would not be relieved. The Confederates held that Lincoln 
was bound by Seward's promise ; the Northerners held that he was not. The 
two views are fully stated by Davis in " Confederate Government," I, 263- 
2QS, and by Rhodes in "History of the United States," III, 325-351. 

2 They were asked to serve only three months, as there was a general 
belief that the war would be quickly ended. 



336 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Four days after the call, on the anniversary of the battle 
of Lexington (April 19), the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment 
passed through Baltimore, where it was attacked by a mob. 
There was firing, and men were killed — the first loss of life 
in this great war. 

309. Four more States secede; Richmond becomes the Con- 
federate Capital. As soon as it became plain that the North 



"=TT \; 



'^n^-^' ^ni^^^^w- f^^- 




A NORTHERN ARMY ON THE MARCH 



meant to fight, four Southern states which had hitherto re- 
fused to secede felt bound in honor to go to the aid of the 
other states of the South. These were Virginia/ North Caro- 
lina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. All four withdrew- fr.m the 

1 Virginia had striven hard to avert war. It had called a peace convention 
(February 4, 1861), in which twenty-one states were represented, but Con- 
gress had refused to accept the convention's recommendation. Previously the 
Republicans in Congress had rejected what is known as the Crittenden Com- 
promise, proposed by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky. It would have 
divided the territories into slave and free on the parallel 36° 30'. 

2 Four other slave states — Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri — 
did not secede. In all these the feeling between nationalists and states' 
rights men was extremely bitter. From these states men enlisted in both t;ie 
Union and Confederate armies. At Gettysburg an important part of the 
battle was between two divisions of Maryland troops, one on the Union side, 
the other on the Confederate. There was also a division of sentiment inside 
Virginia. In the mountainous part of the state few slaves were held, and 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 337 

Union and entered the Confederacy. Thereupon the Con- 
federate capital was removed from Montgomery to Richmond 
(May 20, 1861). 

II. THE GATHERING OF THE ARMIES 

310. The Strength of the Two Sides. In the terrible war 
which thus began, each side had advantages over the other. 
In time it became apparent that these advantages were 
chiefly on the side of the North, but in 1861 this was not 
certain. However, in one respect the Northern advantage 
was plain from the start. First, the North had more men.^ 
Second, the North also had a great advantage over the 
South in possessing factories, machine shops, iron mills, and 
shipyards in which to construct guns, ammunition, supplies 
• — everything that a soldier might need from a belt to a 
cannon. The South had but a small number of factories and 
was not prepared to manufacture arms. Third, the North 
had complete control of the navy, which was used to keep 
the South from importing the needed arms and ammunition 
from Europe. 

On the other hand, the South had certain advantages. 
First, a large proportion of the best officers of the time were 
Southerners, and therefore the South entered the war better 
provided than the North with experienced generals. Second, 

the inhabitants were not on good terms with the slaveholders of the coast, 
who controlled the Virginia legislature. A number of Western counties with- 
drew from Virginia and organized a new state, West Virginia, which was 
admitted to the Union on June 19, 1863. In the mountain region of Ten- 
nessee there were also many people who did not hold slaves and were more 
or less hostile to the slaveholders, who controlled the policy of the state. 
These people never separated themselves from Tennessee, but they sym- 
pathized strongly with the Union and sent many thousand men to serve in 
the Union army. 

^Some 22,000,000 people were opposed to about 9,000,000. Of the latter, 
3,500,000 were slaves, who, of course, did not fight, but by staying quietly 
at work produced the food that enabled almost all the Southern white men 
to take part in the war. 



338 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the Southern people were accustomed to out-of-door life — 
to riding, shooting, and fox hunting (section 131) — and 
already had much of the training needed to make good sol- 
diers. The Northern armies, on the other hand, were com- 
posed largely of city men, who had to be taught to ride and 
shoot. Third, the Southern troops, as we shall see, fought 
almost always on the defensive, and thus their smaller num- 
bers were helped out by the fact that they could choose their 
place to fight and did not have to protect long lines of com- 
munication. The Northern troops advancing into the South 
had to protect their communications in order to bring up 
supplies and ammunition from a far-off base in the North. 

311. How Money was raised for the War. Both sides soon 
found that it was hard to get enough money. In the North 
this difficulty was overcome, but in the South it grew worse 
and worse as the war went on. 

The Union government, in order to pay its soldiers and to 
buy the arms and food which it needed, did four things : 
(i) It laid new taxes. (2) It laid a new tariff on all imported 
goods. (3) It borrowed great sums from both Americans 
and Europeans. To the people who lent the money it 
issued bonds, which are practically the same as promissory 
notes given by business men when they borrow money and 
promise to pay it back at a certain time with interest. (4) It 
issued paper money, nicknamed "greenbacks," which were 
promises to pay, like the ''continentals" of the Revolution 
(section 178).^ 

The Confederacy also (i) laid new taxes, (2) borrowed 
great sums both in America and in Europe, and (3) issued 
paper money. Both governments had poor success with 

^ To assist in these great undertakings the Union government created a 
system of national banks each of which was required to buy bonds of the 
United States but was allowed to issue bank notes equal to oo per cent 
of the value of its bonds. These notes the bank paid out in its business 
transactions. These banks proved a great success and are now the most 
important in the country. 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 



339 




their paper promises to pay, but in this respect the South 
was much less successful than the North. Though North- 
erners before the end of the war objected to taking paper 
money as pay, they would do so if they got about three 
paper dollars for every gold dollar. In the South, however, 
before the war ended, paper money had become worthless. 
People put as little 
value upon it as 
tliey did on the 
'^ continentals " dur- 
ing the Revolution 
(section 178). 

312. How the 
Fighting Began. On 
both sides the first 
thought was to get 
possession of the 
southern bank of 
the Ohio River and 
of Missouri. Gen- 
eral George B. McClellan led the militia of Ohio across the 
river (May 26, 1861) into the mountains of western Virginia, 
where they defeated a force of Confederates. This move- 
ment led eventually to the creation of the state of West 
Virginia (p. 336, note 2), composed of mountain counties 
whose inhabitants were opposed to secession. 

In Missouri the states' rights men had formed a camp near 
St. Louis, which was broken up (May 10, 1861) by Union 
men under the command of Nathaniel Lyon. There fol- 
lowed a miniature war in Missouri, in the course of which 
Lyon was killed, but which ended in attaching Missouri to 
the Union. But this was not fully accomplished until the 
following spring, when the Confederate forces, under General 
Van Dorn, were driven into Arkansas and defeated at Pea 
Ridge, or Elkhorn. 



CONSTRUCTING A PONTOON BRIDGE 
From an old print 



340 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

At first it looked as if Kentucky would join the Confed- 
eracy, but in August, 1861, the Union men got control of the 
legislature, and in September they declared that Kentucky 
would not secede. Though the Confederates held eastern 
Kentucky for a while, they were defeated by General Thomas 
early the next year at Mill Spring and driven into Tennessee. 
Nevertheless numbers of Kentuckians, including some famous 
generals, fought in the Confederate army. 

Maryland was prevented from seceding by the large 
number of Federal troops rapidly brought together around 
Washington. 

313. First Battle of Bull Run, or Manassas. By the middle 
of summer a considerable Union army, commanded by 
General McDowell, lay encamped south of the Potomac, 
protecting Washington. Not far distant, at Manassas Junc- 
tion, on a little stream called Bull Run, a Confederate army 
was commanded by General Beauregard (section 308) and 
General Joseph E. Johnston. On a hot Sunday in July, 
McDowell attacked the Confederates and was at first suc- 
cessful. General Bee of the Southern army hurried to General 
Thomas J. Jackson and exclaimed, ''General, they are driv- 
ing us back." ''We will give them the bayonet," said Jack- 
son, quietly. His manner was so calm and yet so inspiring 
that Bee turned to his men and shouted, "Look at Jackson ; 
he stands there like a stone wall ! " Ever after he was 
known as "Stonewall" Jackson. 

Owing to the firmness of Jackson and the arrival of more 
Confederates, led by General Kirby Smith, the Union troops 
were checked, thrown into confusion, and finally put to 
flight. The Confederates, however, had lost so heavily that 
they did not pursue, and the defeated army found shelter 
in Washington. 

314. Results of the First Battle ; Both Sides pause for 
Better Preparation. This battle showed both sides that they 
were not yet prepared for real war. There followed a long 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 



341 




pause in which both North and South set to work to drill 
and organize great armies, to collect arms and ammunition, 
and to build forts. On both sides there were hundreds of 
thousands of willing volunteers, but until they were trained 
and organized they 
were of little use as 
soldiers. For cannon, 
rifles, and ammunition 
the North turned to 
its own workshops ; ^ 
the South sent agents 
to Europe, who pur- 
chased arms in several 
countries. The North- 
ern armies were as- 
sembled along an 
irregular line extend- 
ing from Washington 
through western Vir- 
ginia and Kentucky to 
the Mississippi and 
across southern Missouri to the Indian Territory. The 
Confederates, though they had failed to get possession of 
Kentucky, succeeded in building great fortifications at Co- 
lumbus in that state, by means of which they had, for a time, 
control of the Mississippi River. 

315. How the Confederacy expected to get Arms; "King 
Cotton." For the arms bought in Europe the Confederacy 
expected to pay in cotton. The rich English mill-owners and 
all the immense number of their employees had to have the 
Southern cotton in order to keep on with their work. It was 
estimated that no less than four million English — men, 

' But even these could not equip the Northern armies. During the first 
year of the war the North bought in Europe no less than 726,000 rifles and 
great quantities of military supplies. 



OLD-TIME RIFLE PITS 

These were not unhke the trenches of the 
World War. From an old print 



342 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

women, and children — would suffer, directly or indirectly, 
if the English cotton mills were stopped through lack of 
raw cotton brought from America. Therefore the South- 
erners felt sure of being able to get all the money they 
wanted in England, ''Cotton is King," they said — meaning 
that England wanted cotton so badly that the American 
owners of cotton had unlimited power in their hands. 




SHIPPING ARMS FROM LIVERPOOL IN 1861 



316. Lincoln aims to destroy the Cotton Trade; the Block- 
ade. Lincoln saw the importance to the North of breaking 
up the cotton trade. If the South could not sell its cotton 
it would not be able to buy the arms and ammunition with- 
out which the war could not be carried on. No sooner had 
Lincoln sent out the first call for volunteers (section 308) 
than he began preparations to shut the South off from Eu- 
rope. A proclamation was issued (April 19, 1861) declaring 
all the Southern ports blockaded ; that is, Lincoln ordered 
the United States navy to watch these ports and seize any 
ships attempting to go in or out of them. He also took steps 
for greatly increasing the navy's size and efficiency. 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 343 

From this time to the end of the war the Union navy 
was the key to the situation. At first it was not numerous 
enough to close all the Southern ports — a good deal of cot- 
ton went out to Europe, and quantities of arms and ammu- 
nition came in ; but as the Northern navy increased, the 
Southern ports one after another were all closed. At length 
there came a time when the blockade was complete. During 
the latter part of the war no cotton went out, no arms came 
in. It has been truly said that the Northern navy ''stran- 
gled" the Confederacy. A great deal has been written on 
the influence of sea power in history,^ and there is no better 
example of what a fleet counts for in war than the American 
blockade.^ 

317. The "Trent Affair." At first it was possible for swift 
ships to run the blockade ; that is,- evade the Federal war- 
ships, which were not numerous enough to patrol the coast 
efficiently. A famous case of blockade-running took place 
late in 1861. Two officials of the Confederate government, 
James M. Mason of Virginia and John Slidell of Louisiana, 
made their way to Cuba. There, on a regular mail steamer, 
— the Trent, under the British flag, — they took passage for 
England. The ship was stopped by the United States war- 
ship San Jacinto, whose commander carried off the Confed- 
erate officials as prisoners of war. By so doing he violated 
international law,^ which forbids the seizure of travelers under 
a neutral flag unless they belong to the armed forces of a 

1 See the famous book of this title by Admiral Mahan ; see also Chapter 
XXIV, on "The World War." 

2 The figures of the export of cotton just before, during, and after the 
war tell the whole story. The cotton exported in i860 was valued at $191,- 
8o6,5SS; in 1861 the value shrank to $34,051,483; in 1862 it was only 
$1,180,113. In 1866, with the return of peace, it rose at a bound to 
$281,385,223. 

3 We mean by international law a set of agreements, expressed chiefly in 
treaties, by which nations have promised to be bound in their relations with 
one another. During the war the American government and the British 
government agreed upon important rules as to the conduct of blockade. 

\ 



344 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

nation at war. Mason and Slidell were not in the Confed- 
erate army and so should have been safe against capture. 
Because they were taken from a British ship, England at once 
demanded their release. The demand caused much excite- 
ment in the North, and there were protests against agreeing 




THE r/RGINlA SINKING THE CUMBERLAXD 

Above, a section of the Monitor 

to it, but Lincoln saw that he had no choice. ''We have 
done," said he, in substance, "just what we protested against 
in the War of 1812" (section 224). Sumner (section 296), 
who was a great lawyer, said, "The men must be given up." 
Mason and Slidell were released and allowed to continue 
their journey. They became the official representatives of 
the Confederacy — one in Paris, the other in London. 

318. A Great Attempt to break the Blockade; the Virginia 
(OT Merrimac) and the Monitor. The Southerners soon saw that 
the blockade was their chief danger. They determined to 
make every effort to break through the line of Federal ships 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 345 

along the coast. At Norfolk, Virginia, an old frigate, the 
Merrimac, had fallen into the hands of the Confederates. 
This vessel was remodeled by John M. Brooke, covered with 
a roof of railroad rails, armed with heavy cannon, renamed 
the Virginia, and sent against a fleet of wooden ships lying 
off the mouth of the James River. ^ Against the iron coating 
of this strange new sort of ship the cannon balls from two 
frigates, the Congress and the Cumberland, glanced harm- 
lessly. Both the frigates were destroyed, though the sinking 




THE MONITOR IN BATTLE TRIM 



Cumberland went on firing until the muzzles of the guns 
were under water. The fall of night put an end to the 
battle temporarily, but there were other Union ships which 
the Virginia intended to destroy the next day. During the 
night, however, a strange little vessel steamed alongside the 
old-fashioned wooden frigates, which were waiting for day in 
order to give battle to the Confederate ironclad. This new- 
comer was described as '^a cheese box on a raft" ; its deck 
lay very nearly level with the water, and above this deck 
rose a single round turret carrying two powerful guns. 
Such was the Monitor — unlike any ship ever built before. 
Its designer, John Ericsson, had previously invented the 
screw propeller. His new ship was an ironclad which had 
been constructed in great haste at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. 
The next day, — Sunday, March 9, 1862, — for the first 
time, a battle took place in which the combatants were both 
armored ships. They circled about each other, firing from 
such close range that often the muzzles of their guns very 
nearly touched. Though shells rained on both ironclads, 

^A still more interesting experiment made by Confederate engineers was 
the first effective submarine, the Hunley. It torpedoed the United States 
ship Housatonic in Charleston harbor and sank with its victim. 



346 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



neither was seriously damaged. But at length the Monitor 
drew off into shallow water, where the Virginia could not 
follow; the latter, unable to destroy the Monitor, steamed 
back to Norfolk and gave up her attempt to break through 
the blockade. 

319. The Plan of the War on Land. Meanwhile plans had 
been laid at Washington for a great war on land. All the 




SCALE OF MILES 



6U 100 2U0 300 

THE WAR IN THE WEST 



middle part of the northern line of the Confederacy ran across 
mountains through which it would be difficult for an in- 
vading army to enter the South. But at both ends of this 
mountain region, in Virginia on one side, in Tennessee on 
the other, are low hills and plains which offer little obstruc- 
tion to an invading force. The wise plan for the invaders 
was to avoid the mountains and advance round each end of 
them across the lowlands. This, Lincoln and his advisers 
decided to do. In this fact lies the key to a clear understand- 
ing of all that follows. Always there were two struggles 
going on — one in the East, another in the West. 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 



347 



III. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE MISSISSIPPI : FROM EARLY 
IN 1862 TO THE MIDDLE OF 1863 

320. Value of Rivers in War. From the fortifications 
commanding the Mississippi (section 314) a chain of forts 
stretched eastward. Two important strongholds were Fort 
Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the 




TRANSPORTING SOLDIERS BY BOAT 



Cumberland. All these forts, you will notice, were situated 
on the banks of rivers. Of course you see why. If the 
Union troops could use the rivers commanded by these 
forts, they could advance by boat, bring up supplies by 
boat, and this would be much easier than advancing over 
land. Therefore the Western army aimed to get possession 
of these river valleys, each of which would open a gateway 
into the South. 

321. Grant advances up the Tennessee ; Fort Henry ; Fort 
Donelson. Early in 1862 a Union army commanded by 
General Ulysses S. Grant moved up the valley of the 
Tennessee and captured Fort Henry (February 6, 1862). 



34^ SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 



At that point the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers lie 
close together. Turning suddenly to the left, Grant attacked 
Fort Donelson on the Cumberland. After a stubborn de- 
fense the Confederate general, Buckner, asked what Grant 
would require of him if he promised to give up. Grant's 
reply was: ''No terms but immediate and unconditional 

surrender can be accepted. I 
propose to move at once upon 
your works." These terms 
were accepted, and Fort 
Donelson was surrendered 
(February i6, 1862) with 
fifteen thousand men and 
forty cannon. His soldiers, 
making a joke of Grant's ini- 
tials, ''U.S.," nicknamed him 
'' Unconditional Surrender." 

322. Grant proceeds along 
the Tennessee ; Pittsburg Land- 
ing, or Shiloh. Grant went 
on, along the Tennessee, to 
Pittsburg Landing, near the 
little log church of Shiloh. One of the greatest Confederate 
generals, Albert Sidney Johnston, who had gathered an 
army at Corinth, IMississippi, made a swift march and 
attacked Grant (April 6, 1862). For two days a tre- 
mendous battle raged back and forth between Pittsburg 
Landing and Shiloh. On the first day the advantage of 
numbers was with the Confederates, and in the afternoon 
Grant appeared to be defeated. The death of Johnston 
and the coming of the darkness brought the battle to a 
standstill. During the night powerful reenforcements joined 
the Union army, and by the close of the second day Grant 
had won a victory. General Beauregard, who had succeeded 
Johnston, retreated to Corinth. 




ALBERT S. JOHNSTON 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 



349 



323. A Union Fleet Cooperates with the Army of the West; 
Farragut at New Orleans. While the Union Army of the 
West had been pushing South along the Tennessee and the 
Mississippi, a Union fleet commanded by Admiral Farragut 
had been sent against New Orleans. Two strong forts pro- 
tected the approach up the Mississippi to the city. Massive 
iron cables, resting on barges, 
had been stretched across the 
river. Between the forts and 
the city were fifteen armed 
vessels, including two iron- 
clads, one of which was similar 
to the Virginia (section 318). 
Against all these powerful de- 
fenses Farragut brought fifty 
wooden ships carrying an army - 
commanded by General Butler. 

On the night of April 24, 
1862, Farragut ran past the 
forts amid, literally, a hail of 
shells, burst his way through 
the huge chain, and scattered 
the Confederate fleet. The 

next day he anchored before New Orleans. The whole 
river front of the city blazed with burning steamers and 
great heaps of burning cotton which had been set on fire 
to prevent its seizure by the invaders. Farragut at once 
took possession of the city. 

324. Farragut attempts to join Grant ; Vicksburg. Farragut 
landed Butler's army at New Orleans and proceeded 
up the river with his fleet. Thus it came about that 
two great forces were pushing their way — one down the 
Mississippi from the vicinity of Pittsburg Landing, the other 
up from New Orleans. What prevented them from joining 
hands was the great fortress of Vicksburg, called the 




ULYSSES S. GRANT 



350 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




MAP SHOWING GRANT S CAMPAIGN 
AGAINST VICKSBURG 



Gibraltar of the West. To take Vicksburg became now the 
chief object of the Union armies in the West. To defend it 
became the chief aim of the western Confederates. 

325. The Federal Advance against Vicksburg; Nathan B. 
Forrest ; Braxton Bragg. The advance of Grant's armies 
was rendered slow and costly by Confederate raids con- 
ducted by the brilliant 
cavalry leader, General 
Nathan B. Forrest, who 
frequently cut the Federal 
lines of communication 
(section 310). However, 
the Federals captured Cor- 
inth (section 322), but in 
order to hold it they had 
to fight a furious battle 
which lasted two days (October 3-4, 1862). In this battle the 
Union general Rosecrans beat off the Confederate general 
Van Dorn. 

The chief Confederate commander in the West was 
General Braxton Bragg. Hoping to draw the Union forces 
northward and away from Vicksburg he made a raid into 
Kentucky ; but Grant, who was steadily approaching Vicks- 
burg, refused to turn back, and Bragg, after fighting a drawn 
battle at Perry ville (October 8, 1862) with General Buell, 
decided to return and try another plan. 

Bragg made up his mind to risk a huge battle in the hope 
of smashing Grant's communications (section 321) and forc- 
ing him to give up the advance against V^icksburg. A Union 
army commanded by Rosecrans met Bragg at IMurfreesboro 
in Tennessee (December 31, 1862). During three days 
the fighting was so severe that Murfreesboro. ranks among 
the fiercest battles of the war. Though not quite a victory 
for either side, it stopped Bragg's advance and caused him 
to draw back southward. 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 



351 



326. Grant's Marches around Vicksburg ; the Siege. Grant 
now performed the most daring act of his career. He 
crossed the Mississippi, marched down the west bank, re- 
crossed, and came up against Vicksburg from behind. Gen- 
eral Pemberton, who marched against him, was defeated in 
the battle of Champion's 
Hill — called also Baker's 
Creek (May i6, 1863)— 
and driven back into the 
city of Vicksburg. 

Now at last the siege of 
Vicksburg really began. 
The Union army gathered 
close around it. Great guns 
were placed in position. 
Soon a storm of cannon 
fire began to fall upon the 
"Gibraltar of the West." 

For nearly seven weeks 
the fortress held out. At 
last, when the garrison was 
on the verge of starvation, 
it surrendered (July 4, 1863) with thirty-two thousand men. 

Soon after the fall of Vicksburg the Union forces had 
control of the whole Mississippi. Thus, at last, .they had 
cut the Confederacy in two. 




STATUE OF GENERAL FORREST, 
MEMPHIS 



IV. FIRST GREAT STRUGGLE AT THE EASTERN END OF 
THE MOUNTAINS (SUMMER AND AUTUMN, 1862) 

327. McClellan's March up the "Peninsula"; Seven Pines, 
or Fair Oaks; Robert E. Lee. Early in 1862 General 
McClellan (section 312), who had been put in command at 
Washington (section 313), took his Army of the Potomac 
by water to Fortress Monroe (see map, p. 353). His plan 



352 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

was to advance up the long peninsula between the James 
and York Rivers and lay siege to Richmond. With one 
hundred thousand men he left Fortress Monroe on April 4, 
1862. The Confederate forces, under the command of Gen- 
eral Joseph E. Johnston (section 313), though little more 
than half as numerous, resisted so stubbornly that McClel- 
lan's advance proved slow. Hard battles were fought at 
Yorktown and Williamsburg, and at each place, for a time, 
McClellan paused ; then, slowl}^, steadily, he moved forward 
again. It took him nearly two months to reach the Chicka- 
hominy River, within sight of the church spires of Rich- 
mond. And then occurred one of those unforeseen accidents 
which often play such a great part in war. Heavy rains came 
on, and while the Union army was crossing the Chicka- 
hominy River it began to rise. When half the army was 
across, the river had risen so much that it became almost im- 
passable, and the Union army was practically cut in two. 
General Johnston saw his opportunity and attacked with 
all his forces. Thus began the furious two days' battle of 
Fair Oaks, called also Seven Pines. McClellan, however, 
managed to get the rest of his army across the river and 
held his ground, though neither side gained any particular 
advantage. In this battle General Johnston received a severe 
wound and turned over the command of the Confederate 
army to General Robert Edward Lee (section 275, note i). 
328. Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley; he joins Lee; the 
Seven Days' Battles. jNIeanwhile, in the Shenandoah valley, 
Stonewall Jackson had been fighting a campaign which is 
one of the most famous of the war. There were large Union 
forces in that region, and still others in the vicinity of Wash- 
ington. McClellan had begged Lincoln to send them to his 
assistance. Jackson aimed to keep them busy where they 
were. His movements were so extraordinarily swift that the 
Union commanders were bewildered. They felt that if they 
went to the aid of McClellan, Jackson might slip in behind 




LINCOLN WITH McCLELLAN AND HIS GENERALS 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 



353 



them and seize Washington. Lincoln shared their alarm 
and ordered them to remain. Then, when they least expected 
it, Jackson suddenly wheeled about, rushed his army across 

the whole width 

of Virginia, and 
joined Lee. Im- 
mediately they at- 
tacked McClellan. 
The series of bat- 
tles which were 
then fought is 
spoken of as the 
'^ Seven Days' Bat- 
tles" (June 25- 
July I, 1862). 
Slowly McClellan 
was driven back 
from the vicinity 
of Richmond. He 
retreated toward 
the James, where 
he was met by 
Union gunboats. 
The last event of 
this furious series 
of battles took 

place at Malvern Hill, on the bank of the James, where the 
Army of the Potomac faced about and repulsed the confeder- 
ates in some of the hardest fighting of the whole war.^ 

329. Lee moves Northward; Second Manassas, or Bull Run. 
The Army of the Potomac was transferred by boat to the 
vicinity of Washington, where General John Pope was in 
command of a separate force. Lee, seeing that these two 

^The Union loss on the Peninsula was about 23,000; the Confederate, 
about 27,000. 




SEAT OF WAR IN EASTERN VIRGINIA, 1861-1865 



354 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

forces would soon unite, made a rapid march and attacked 
Pope on the old field of Bull Run (section 313). He gained 
a great victory, known sometimes as Second Bull Run, some- 
times as Second oNIanassas. In this battle Jackson again 
greatly distinguished himself. Pope retreated to Washing- 
ton and soon afterward was removed from command. 




ns-^ife"'~^~~ ■'^^^^^^^^^-^-^ -- 



'''=^e^S?Sjr=;'- 



TRAFFIC BETWEEN THE LINES 

Union and Confederate soldiers meeting and exchanging food and tobacco. 
From a war-time sketch 

330. Lee's Invasion of Maryland; Antietam, or Sharpsburg; 
Fredericksburg. Lee now resolved to invade IMaryland and 
if possible to take Washington. His army crossed the Poto- 
mac, singing "Maryland, my Maryland," and advanced to 
the little town of Sharpsburg, on Antietam Creek. There 
Jackson joined Lee after an absence during which he cap- 
tured great quantities of military supplies at Harpers Ferry. 
The Army of the Potomac, with McClellan in command, had 
also been marching upon Sharpsburg.^ And now occurred 

1 A copy of Lee's plan of_ campaign, which was lost by a Confederate 
officer, was picked up by Union soldiers and sent to McClellan. 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 355 

what is generally called "the bloodiest single day" of the 
whole war (September 17, 1862). McClellan attacked, and 
all day long there was frightful carnage along Antietam 
Creek, and yet neither side gained a victory. Lee at last 
drove back McClellan's forces, but did not attempt to 
pursue. This battle showed that he was not strong enough 
to go on with his proposed invasion. Two days later he 
retreated across the Potomac.'^ 

McClellan moved so slowly in following Lee that Lincoln 
lost patience and removed him from command. He was 
succeeded by General Burnside. He too followed Lee with 
caution, but at last attacked him near Fredericksburg, Vir- 
ginia (December 13, 1862). The assault is g'ustly considered 
one of the grandest examples of American courage. Nine 
times in quick succession the Union armies rushed against 
the Confederate intrenchments, which were so placed that 
there was not the least chance of their being taken ; nine 
times the Union men were driven back by a deluge of cannon 
and rifle fire. Finally Burnside's officers begged him to give 
up the mad attempt. He reluctantly consented and ordered 
a retreat toward Washington. 

V. THE CRISIS ; HOW SOVEREIGN COUNTRIES TOOK PART 

IN THE WAR; WHY LINCOLN CHANGED HIS ATTITUDE 

TOWARD SLAVERY ; THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG 

33L The Cotton Famine; the Alabama. The blockade 
(section 316) produced what is known as the cotton famine. 
English mills were forced to shut down. The mill-owners 
besought the British prime minister, Lord Palmerston, to 
form an alliance with the South, declare war on the North, 
and break the blockade. Lord Palmerston wished to do so, 

1 There has been much debate over the size of each army in this dreadful 
battle. Neither general had his whole force on the field. It would seem 
that Lee had about forty thousand men in action; McClellan, about twice 
as many. 



3S6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

but he hesitated for two reasons : ( i ) an influential group 
of Englishmen in Parliament, led by John Bright, were 
hostile to the South because it maintained slavery; (2) the 
suffering workmen of the idle cotton mills had read ''Uncle 
Tom's Cabin" (section 295) and felt that the South by 
maintaining slavery was the enemy of the workingman the 
world over. 

While Palmerston hesitated, agents of the Confederacy 
purchased ships in England, put cannon aboard them, and 
sent them out to prey upon the commerce of the United 
States. The most noted of these ''commerce destroyers," 
the Alabama, was preparing to sail in the early summer of 
1862. The minister of the United States, Charles Francis 
Adams, protested, but in spite of his protest the Alabama 
was allowed to go to sea.^ 

332. Napoleon- III; the Mexican Empire. At this time, a 
nephew of the great Napoleon, having overturned the French 
Republic and made himself emperor as Napoleon III, was 
urging Lord Palmerston to take the side of the South. Like 
his famous uncle, Napoleon III wished to get control of 
some part of America. While our war was in progress he 
sent an army to Mexico (1862), overturned the Mexican 
republic, and forced the INIexicans to accept an emperor, 
Maximilian of Austria (1864). Napoleon thought that if 
the United States broke into two countries, neither would 
be powerful enough to drive Maximilian out of Mexico. " 

1 This famous ship destroyed vessels of the United States worth $7,000,000. 
It was eventually sunk by the United States warship Kearsarge in a battle off 
the coast of France (June 19, 1864). After the war the United States 
claimed that in allowing the Alabama to sail from an English port England 
had violated international law (p. 343, note 3) and should pay for all the ships 
it had destroyed. The case was tried in a special international court at 
Geneva, which decided that the United States was right. England promptly 
paid for the losses caused by the Alabama and other cruisers which had 
also been allowed to sail from British ports. The total payment was 
$15,500,000. 

-This is the one instance in which the Monroe Doctrine (section 233) 
has been openly defied (see also section 411). 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 357 

333. Bright and the Slavery Question. The sailing of the 
Alabama and the intrigues of Napoleon encouraged the 
friends of the South in England and greatly alarmed 
the friends of the North. Bright wrote to Charles Sumner 
(sections 296, 319) that in England not secession but slavery 
was the one thing they were thinking about, and that if 
Lincoln would say the war was against slavery his friends in 
England would be able to keep Palmerston from siding with 
the South. Hitherto Lincoln had refused to say that he was 
fighting to destroy slavery ; ^ for that reason the American 
abolitionists had bitterly denounced him. 

334. The Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln at length 
decided that he could not save the Union '•without freeing 
the slaves. On January i, 1863, he issued the Emancipation 
Proclamation, in which he announced that henceforth, in 
the states at war with the Union, all negroes would be looked 
upon as free men by the United States government.- There 
were three great results of the proclamation : ( i ) all the 
Northern abolitionists, who hitherto had disliked Lincoln, 
rallied to his support; (2) whenever Northern armies occu- 
pied a part of the Confederacy the negroes were freed ; 
(3) the workingmen of England and all other followers of 
Bright came out unconditionally in support of the North, and 
their influence prevented Palmerston from taking sides with 
the South. 

335. Lee's Desperate Attempt to change the Situation; 
Cliancellorsville. In the spring of 1863 Lee set out on 
a bold attempt to march to Washington. In April his Army 
of northern Virginia met the Army of the Potomac, now 
commanded by General Hooker, at Chancellorsville. The 
battle which followed was perhaps Lee's greatest victory.^ 

iln a letter to Horace Greeley he had said, "My paramount object is to 
save the Union and is not either to save or to destroy slavery." 

2 In consequence negroes were allowed to enlist in the Union armies, 
which, before the end of the war, included 179,000 black troops. 

3 Union forces, 113,000 men ; Confederates, 63,000. 



358 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



However, the Confederates suffered a terrible loss: in 
the gathering darkness Jackson was accidentally shot by his 
own men and died soon after. It was universally felt that 
the loss of thousands of soldiers would not have equaled the 
loss of this one great genius. 

336. Gettysburg. Lee paused briefly after this great com- 
bat and then pressed on toward the North. Late in June he 

crossed the Potomac. 






L.^.^s^.ywir-'^^ 




FALL IN FOR SOUP AT THE FRONT 
From a war-time sketch 



On the first of July, 
with seventy thousand 
men, he was not 
far from the little 
town of Gettysburg in 
Pennsylvania. 

Meanwhile the Army 
of the Potomac, under 
a new commander. 
General Meade, was 
hurr^qng to meet Lee. 
At Gettysburg, July i, 
parts of the armies came in contact and a battle began. 
During the next day it continued. Both Lee and Meade kept 
hurrying up more men, and neither could yet say which way 
the battle inclined. Both sides fought desperately. They 
felt that the very turning point of the war had come. 

On the third day at Gettysburg the center of the Union 
army lay along Cemetery Ridge, a piece of high ground 
shaped like a fishhook and extending from Gulp's Hill on 
the north to another hill, called Little Round Top, on the 
south. Both at Gulp's Hill and Little Round Top, the day 
before, there had been furious fighting without decisive 
results. Now Lee decided to make a terrific attack on the 
center of the Union line, where the troops of General Han- 
cock held a low stone wall on the edge of a field. Select 
forces led by General Pickett were sent against Hancock, 




LEE AND JACKSON 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 359 

Fifteen thousand Confederates moved out in long, even lines 
and started upon their terrible undertaking. They had to 
cross open ground a mile in width. As they advanced the 
Union cannon fire tore huge gaps in their lines, but they did 
not waver ; on they went, to the very mouths of the cannon ! 
General Armistead, with his cap on the point of his sword, 
leaped upon the Union intrenchments, crying, ''Boys, give 
them the cold steel." That moment he fell dead. At the 
stone wall occurred a furious hand-to-hand struggle in which 
men used their guns as clubs and fought like tigers. While 
this went on, Hancock, lying wounded on the ground, di- 
rected the movements of other Union troops he was keep- 
ing in reserve. They now converged from many directions 
and hurled themselves against the Confederates. For a 
brief space Pickett's men held their ground ; then they were 
swept backward, and the day was lost for the South. 

VI. WHAT WAS DONE BY WOMEN TO SUPPORT THE WAR 

337. Soldiers only One Part of the Modern Army. The 
great novelist Thackeray says that war "takes the blood of 
the men and the tears of the women." He means that while 
the men suffer bodily, the women suffer in spirit, and their 
courage in bearing sorrow is as great as that of the men in 
bearing pain. But in modern war the women do more than 
this ; they do a large part of the actual work. This is neces- 
sary because the armies are so enormous.^ So many men 

^At the opening of 1863 the Union armies numbered 918,000; the Con- 
federates, 486,000. At the close of the war the Union had 1,052,038 
soldiers. The Confederate army was so much reduced in size that the 
number which actually laid down their arms was only 174,223. These 
great armies were at first composed altogether of volunteers, but as the war 
went on both the North and the South imitated the nations of continental 
Europe and adopted "conscription"; that is, they passed laws which made 
military service compulsory until the end of the war. Picking out the 
men who had to serve under these laws was called making a draft. The 
men who were thus called upon to serve were said to have been "drafted" 



36o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




have to leave their ordinary occupations that the country 
could not go on with its daily life if the women did not, to 
a large extent, take up the work that the men must break off. 
338. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions. In the North 
women did a large part of the work necessary to maintain 

what was known as the Sani- 
tary Commission. It was an 
association formed to aid the 
government in taking care of 
sick and wounded soldiers. It 
employed surgeons and nurses, 
it established hospitals, and it 
looked after convalescent sol- 
diers who were allowed to 
come home for a time to re- 
gain their strength. In many 
ways it corresponded to the 
Red Cross of today. 

Another important associa- 
tion, the Christian Commis- 
sion, also owed much of its 
success to women. Its purpose was to aid the government by 
keeping up the spirit of the soldiers and especially by look- 
ing after their religious needs. It enrolled" many clergymen 
and sent them to the front to hold services among the fighting 
men and to give Christian consolation to the dying. 

In collecting funds for these associations the women of 
the North were both zealous and successful. Such women 
as Mrs. Mary Livermore were tireless in their unremitting 
labor — collecting supplies and money and enrolling workers. 
They taught our country what an immense part may be done 
by these voluntary associations in aid of the government 

into the army. In some cases the draft met with fierce opposition. In 
New York there were famous draft riots which were put down by Union 
troops just after Gettysburg. 



©TheCentiirj'Co. 
A WAR BALLOON OF 1S64 

From "Battles and Leaders of the 
Civil War," by Johnson 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 361 

during a war. It is impossible to estimate how much the 
government was able to save in actual expense because 
of the work of these capable women. What they did in 
the way of keeping up enthusiasm" for the cause is still more 
completely beyond our power to estimate. 

339. The Southern Women; Hardships during the Confed- 
eracy. In the South the women were equally powerful in 
keeping up the spirit of the men. This was especially true in 
the latter part of the war, when the Northern armies became 
so much more numerous than the Confederate, and the 
chance of eventual success for the Confederacy became each 
day discouragingly smaller. If in those dark days the 
women of the South had lost heart and had begged their 
husbands and brothers to give up the fight, the men would 
not have had the courage to go on. But the women never 
wavered ; they kept up their fearless encouragement of the 
men to the very last hour. Meanwhile they bore great hard- 
ships. Long before the end of the war the Southern women 
were turning over to the army everything they had which 
could in any way be used. Their silk dresses were made 
into flags ; their woolen dresses and shawls were cut up 
and made into shirts for the soldiers ; their napkins, table- 
cloths, and linen sheets were torn into strips for bandages. 
From the carpets off the floors army blankets were made. 

One of the most striking features of the time was the 
faithfulness of the negroes on the plantations. For the most 
part they stayed quietly at work under the direction of the 
white women. Many attended their masters to the front 
as servants. Nowhere did they attempt a slave insurrection. 

340. The Food Supply. The women managed the planta- 
tions while the men were at the front. It was owing to the 
women and slaves whom they directed that the Confed- 
erate armies were fed, but even then the Confederate food 
supply was sadly inadequate. Very soon all imported foods 
such as coffee and tea gave out. This. was due to the blockade. 



362 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

As substitutes for coffee the South used parched corn and 
parched rye. Tea was made from dried raspberry leaves. 
Parched peanuts were ground and used in place of chocolate. 
But the hardest thing to get was salt. At times it could not 
be had at any price. A bargain is recorded in which thirty 




J 

14 



CONFEDERATE BATTLE LINE AT CHICK AM AUGA 

cups of salt were exchanged for thirty cords of wood.^ ''In 
every emergency," wrote a Confederate lady afterwards, 
''there was one unfailing resource — if we could not find a 
substitute for any article, we could do without it ; and this 
we did, with a fortitude born of the times." 



VII. HOW THE WAR WAS BROUGHT TO AN END 

341. Midsummer, 1863; the European Powers decide not 
to Intervene. Lee's terrible disaster at Gettysburg, July 3, 
1863 (section 336), put an end to the hopes of the South- 
erners for aid from Europe. The party of John Bright 
(section 331) was able to dictate the policy of Palmerston. 

^ Prices rose enormously. At Richmond, late in the war, a barrel of 
flour cost a thousand dollars. . 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 



363 




who definitely refused to agree to the plans of Napoleon III 
(section 332). Without English assistance Napoleon did 
not dare to intervene further in America. Shut off from 
Europe and greatly weakened both in men and supplies, 
the Confederacy fought on with all the odds against it. 

342. Chickamauga, 
Chattanooga, and 
the Wilderness. The 
chief events of the 
latter part of 1863 
took place in the 
West. Bragg of the 
Southern army de- 
feated Rosecrans in 
the terrible battle of 
Chickamauga (Sep- 
tember 19-20), only 
to be defeated him- 
self two months 
later by Grant in the three days' battle of Chattanooga. 

Grant was now made general in chief of all the Union 
armies (March, 1864). Leaving General William T. Sher- 
man to command the West, he joined the Army of the 
Potomac and prepared for a final struggle with Lee. At the 
same time he directed Sherman to invade Georgia. Together 
they were to shut Lee betwen their two armies as between 
the jaws of a pair of pincers. 

In May, 1864, Lee's army lay intrenched in the neighbor- 
hood of Fredericksburg, on the south side of the Rapidan 
River, in a region of woods and thick undergrowth known 
as the Wilderness. On May 4, 1864, Grant crossed the 
Rapidan with one hundred and twenty thousand men. Just 
before doing so he sat down on a fallen log and wrote out 
a telegram instructing Sherman to start from Chattanooga on 
his march into Georgia. The watchword of Grant's men was 



FORT BRADY 

A type of harbor defense of 1864 



364 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



" On to Richmond ! " That was also their leader's purpose. 
Throughout the month of May, Grant strove to ''hammer" 
his way through Lee's army. His losses were appalling. 
In the thickets of the Wilderness both Union and Con- 
federate soldiers threw away their lives in complete forget- 
fulness of everything but what each man held to be his duty. 

















The Century Co. 



RAID UPON A BAGGAGE TRAIN BY STUART S CAVALRY 



From "Battles and Leaders of the Civil War," by Johnson. From a 

war-time sketch 

All the while the two armies were gradually moving south- 
eastward.^ The bloodiest fighting took place at Spottsyl- 
vania Court House and at Cold Harbor. At the latter place 
Grant was within six miles of Richmond. He ordered a 
general attack all along his line, only to be driven back 
with frightful slaughter.- 

iJn a fight at Yellow Tavern was killed the brilliant Confederate cavalry 
leader, J. E. B. Stuart. This able soldier was one of the most striking figures 
of the war. More than once he showed his cool audacity by riding com- 
pletely around the Union army. 

2 The Union losses in the Wilderness campaign were 60,000; the Con- 
federate, 40,000. 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 



36s 



343. Grant changes his Plan; the Siege of Petersburg. 
After the repulse at Cold Harbor, Grant suddenly changed 
his plan. He made a wide detour to the east, crossed the 
James River, and came up against Richmond from the south. 
But in order to reach Richmond from this side he had to 
pass through Petersburg. Lee, 
who had hurried straight south,^ 
was there before him. Grant 
then began the famous siege of 
Petersburg, which lasted nearly 
a year. Time and again the 
Union forces attacked the de- 
fenses of the city with reckless 
courage ; time after time they 
were stubbornly driven back.^ 

344. Sherman in Georgia ; 
Mobile Bay ; the March to the 
Sea. Meanwhile Sherman in- 
vaded Georgia. General Joseph 
E. Johnston (section 327) delayed him in the hard-fought 
battle of Kenesaw Mountain, but had not sufficient force to 
stop his advance. Soon afterwards President Davis removed 



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iThis movement gives the teacher a good opportunity to explain with 
the blackboard what soldiers mean by the "interior line" — the opportunity 
a defending army has to move on a straight line between two points, while 
the attacking army must often move on a curve (see also map, p. 350). 

2 During this terrible lighting in eastern Virginia, General Early of the 
Confederate army and General Sheridan of the Union army were struggling 
for the control of the Shenandoah valley. Early wanted to get in Grant's 
rear and attack Washington ; Sheridan wanted to drive him back and also 
to destroy the crops of the region, most of which were intended for Lee's 
army. Sheridan was at- last successful. At the battle of Cedar Creek 
(October 19, 1864) occurred the picturesque incident known as Sheridan's 
Ride. When the battle began Sheridan was at Winchester, many miles 
away. He had with him his favorite horse, a splendid coal-black charger. 
Springing into the saddle, on hearing news of the fighting, he put his horse 
at the gallop. He rode onto the field just as his men were beginning to fall 
back. He rallied them and swiftly changed defeat into victory. 



366 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

General Johnston and appointed in his place General John 
B. Hood. Sherman defeated Hood in the great struggle for 
Atlanta (July- August, 1864) and captured the city. An 
attempt of Hood's to cut Sherman off from his base (section 
342 ) in Tennessee was foiled by General George H. Thomas 




ADMIRAL FARRAGUT ATTACKING THE FORTS IN MOBILE HARBOR 



in the battle of Nashville (December 15-16, 1864). Mean- 
while the last Confederate fleet was destroyed by Farragut 
in Mobile Bay (August 5, 1864) and the blockade (section 
316) was made complete. 

Sherman had determined to march through the heart of 
the South, destroying the supplies which were to be sent to 
Lee. As a first step he burned all the foundries, mills, and 
machine shops of Atlanta ; then he cut "the telegraph wires, 
and with sixty thousand men started eastward (November 
15, 1864). Five weeks later he appeared before Savannah. 
Behind him the crops and the plantation houses had been 
burned and the railroads destroyed, so that all connection 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 367 

between Lee and the far South was at an end. The track 
of his army was a path of fire and smoke sixty miles wide. 
The army of Lee now faced the possibiHty of starvation. 

At the same time Grant, bringing up more men and still 
more men, pressed the siege of Petersburg regardless of loss 
of life. Lee's army shrank to less than thirty thousand men. 
Grant now ordered Sherman to come up across the Carolinas 
and join in the effort to surround Lee. Sherman carried out 
these instructions.^ By the first of April, 1865, Lee saw 
that it was impossible to defend Richmond any longer. He 
withdrew his army toward the west.^ 

345. Lee Surrenders. Grant closely followed Lee, and a 
week later, at Appomattox Court House, the Army of north- 
ern Virginia surrendered. The meeting of the generals to 
arrange the surrender is best described in the words of 
the victor : 

What General Lee's feelings were, I do not know, for he was a 
man of great dignity, with an impassible face. . . . They were 
entirely concealed from my observation. . . . My own feelings 
were sad and depressed. I felt like anything rather than rejoicing 
at the downfall of the foe who had fought so long and so valiantly 
and had suffered so much. . . . We fell into conversation about 
old army times [p. 298, note]. , . . After our conversation had 
run on for some time in this style, General Lee called my attention 
to the object of our meeting — the terms I proposed to give his 
army. I said that I meant merely that his army should lay down 
their arms and not take them up again during the continuance 
of the war, unless duly and properly exchanged. 

lOn his march through the Carolinas (February-March, 1865) Sherman 
continued the work of desolation. The most terrible incident of the march 
was the burning of Columbia, February 17. Sherman had not ordered the 
destruction of the city, but his advance guard appear to have taken things 
into their own hands. Between darkness and daylight the city was burned 
to the ground. 

-President Davis and his cabinet officers attempted to make their way 
south. Davis was overtaken and captured near Irwinville, Georgia. He was 
imprisoned in Fortress Monroe until 1867, when he was released. 



368 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Grant further allowed all soldiers to retain their horses 

because, said he, "they would need them in the spring 

plowing." The officers were allowed to keep their swords.^ 

When the Union soldiers began firing a salute, Grant 

ordered it stopped. In his own words, ''The Confederates 

were now our prisoners, and we 
did not want to exult over their 
downfall." The surrendered 
army numbered 26,765 men. 
They had nothing to eat but 
parched corn. Grant at once 
supplied them with food. 

Five days later — April 14, 
1865 — Major Anderson ( section 
307 ) hoisted over Fort Sumter - 
the same flag which he had 
hauled down four years before. 
Shortly afterwards the Confed- 
erate forces in North Carolina 
surrendered to Sherman. 
346. The End of the War. While this eastern war was 
fought out, a small but important supplementary struggle 
went on west of the Mississippi. The Federal government 
wished to get control of Texas, partly to prevent the men 
of Texas from making their way eastward to join the main 
Confederate armies, partly because there were in the south- 
west large quantities of food and of cotton which both 
armies hoped to secure. The Texan coast was closely block- 
aded. Earlier in the war the blockading fleet had possession 
of Galveston for a brief space (1862), but it was driven 
off by General Magruder, who recovered the city for the 

lit is related that when Grant was writing out the terms of surrender 
he happened to look up and his eyes fell on Lee's sword — a remarkably 
handsome one. Grant paused a moment, then added to the terms, "officers 
to retain their side arms." 

-Charleston had been taken by the Union fleet early in 1865. 




PHILIP H. SHERIDAN 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 369 

Confederates (January, 1863). A later naval attack failed. 
During the latter part of the war the defense of Texas was 
in the hands of General Kirby Smith, whose forces occupied 
the Red River valley. A movement against him by General 
Banks ended in a Federal defeat at Mansfield (April, 1864). 
A counterstroke was attempted by General Price, who made 
a raid northward through Arkansas into Missouri and threat- 
ened St. Louis (autumn, 1864), but was forced to retreat. 
The western Confederates kept the field even after the great 
surrenders in the East. The last engagement of the war was 
fought at Palmito, Texas, May 13, 1865. General Smith 
brought the war to an end by surrendering his command on 
May 26, 1865. The war had cost the lives of seven hundred 
thousand men. 

SUMMARY 

The secession of South Carolina, following Lincoln's election, 
was followed quickly by the secession of Mississippi, Florida, 
Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. These states formed 
the Southern Confederacy (February, 1861). The surrender of 
Southern forts held by Federal troops was demanded and refused. 
When Lincoln announced that he would continue to hold these 
forts President Davis replied by ordering a bombardment of Fort 
Sumter. It was surrendered (April) to the Confederates, and 
Lincoln at once called for volunteers. This led to the secession of 
four states — Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas 
— which promptly joined the Confederacy. 

The earliest fighting consisted of scattered contests of hastily 
armed forces in the border states. The one large action of this 
period of the war was the defeat, in the battle of Manassas, or 
Bull Run, of a Federal army protecting Washington. 

Both sides now perceived that they were unprepared for real 
war. Nearly a year passed while they labored to equip their 
armies largely through purchase in Europe. The crucial impor- 
tance of the Northern fleet now became apparent. It blockaded 
the Southern ports and largely prevented both the import of 
munitions of war and the export of cotton. 



370 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

On land the war had always two parts — eastern and western. 
In the west, from early in 1862 to the middle of 1863, the war 
was a struggle for the Mississippi, with Vicksburg as the central 
point. The Federals attacked from both ends. Vicksburg sur- 
rendered July 4, 1863. 

During this same period in the east the struggle was for the 
Confederate capital, Richmond. The Army of the Potomac, com- 
manded by General McClellan, advanced (April, 1862) from the 
coast almost to Richmond. General Robert E. Lee and General 
Stonewall Jackson drove McClellan to his ships (June-July, 
1862). Lee then defeated Pope in the second battle of Manassas 
(August, 1862 ) and fought the terrible drawn battle of Antietam, or 
Sharpsburg (September, 1862). He won a victory at Fredericks- 
burg (December, 1862), followed by the victory of Chancellors- 
ville (May 2-4, 1863), but suffered a defeat at Gettysburg (July 
1-3, 1863). 

Meanwhile Lincoln had decided to make abolition an issue of 
the war, though at first he had refused to recognize any issue 
but secession. He issued the Emancipation Proclamation (January, 
1863). 

In the autumn of 1862 the Confederates, led by Bragg, defeated 
General Rosecrans in the bloody battle of Chickamauga (Sep- 
tember, 1863). Two months later Bragg lost all he had gained 
when Grant defeated him at Chattanooga (November, 1863). 
From this time forward the struggle was practically two distinct 
wars: 

1. Between the Atlantic and the Mississippi the eastern and 
western Federal armies planned to converge gradually upon Lee. 
The plan was carried out by Grant in the east and by Sherman 
in the west. At Appomattox Court House Lee surrendered his 
army, April 9, 1865. The Confederate forces in North Carolina 
surrendered to Sherman on April 26. 

2. West of the Mississippi a Federal attempt to overrun 
Arkansas and penetrate Texas (1864) was foiled in the battle of 
Mansfield (April, 1864). General Price led a Confederate force 
unsuccessfully against St. Louis (autumn, 1864). General Kirby 
Smith continued the defense of northern Texas until the war closed 
with his surrender on May 20, 1865. 



NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 371 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher: Adams,, C/tarles Francis A datns; Andrews, Women 
of the South in War Time ; Bassett, United States, chaps, xxiv-xxvii ; 
*Bradford, Lee, the Afnerican ; Bkigham, Geographic Influetices, 
chap, vii ; *Charnwood, Abraham Lincoln; Davis, Rise and Fall of 
the Confederate Governine7it ; *De\vey, Financial History, chaps, x, xii ; 
Fess, Political Theory, chap, xvi ; *Grant, Memoirs; Harding, Select 
Orations, 370-381, 392-413, 417-420 ; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chaps, 
xi-xviii, xx-xxii ; *Henderson, Life of Stonetvall fackson ; Hos- 
MER, The Appeal to Arms; Johnson, Readings, 454-505; Morse, 
Abraham Lincolti; Muzzey, Readings, 388-452; NicOLAY, Abraham 
Lincol/i; Pax SON, The Civil War; Rhodes, History, HI, chaps, xiv- 
xvi ; IV, chaps, xvii-xxiii ; V, chaps, xxiv-xxix; RoPES, The Story of 
the Civil War; Stephens, The War between the States; Stephenson, 
Abraham Lincoln and the Unioji (Chronicles of America) (chaps, v-xiv). 
The Day of the Confederacy (Chronicles of America), and Lincoln (in Cam- 
bridge History of American Literature, HI); Wilson, Division and Re- 
union (208-252) and Histoiy of the American People (IV, 210-286); 
Wrong, Captains of the Civil War (Chronicles of America). 

For the Pupil : Barstow, The Civil T/'izr (Century Readings); Elson, 
Sidelights, chaps, i-vi ; Faris, Makers of Our History (chaps, xvi, xviii, 
xxii) and Great Fpochs in American History (VIII) ; Gordy, Abraham 
Lincoln, chaps, ii-xiv; Griffis, The Romance of Conquest, chaps, xxii, 
xxiii ; Hart, Romance of the Civil War, 277-282, 312-318, 342-368; 
Hitchcock, Decisive Battles of America, chaps, xvi-xx; Johnston, 
Leading Ame?ica7i Soldiers, 137-362; Lane and Hill, American 
History in Literature, 146-157; MoORES, Life of Abraham Lincoln; 
Page, Two Little Cofifederates ; Roosevelt and Lodge, Hero Tales from 
American History; Sherman, Some Successful Americans'^ Wilson, 
Division and Reunion, 213-252. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

(See introduction to questions on the Revolutionary War. For the 
teacher's convenience the following questions are arranged in groups.) 

I. How did geographical conditions compel the Federal armies to 
conduct two invasions of the South — one in the east, another in the 
west ? 2. What pathways did the Federals find west of the moun- 
tains? 3. Describe Grant's advance up the Tennessee River to Shiloh. 
(See Chronicles of America or any history of the war.) 

4. Meanwhile, what other attempt was there to get control of the 
Mississippi? 5. After taking New Orleans why did not Farragut go 



372 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

up the river to Memphis ? [6. A series of Confederate operations in 
central Tennessee and Kentucky were designed to create a situation 
that would compel Grant to draw off from the Mississippi and rnove 
inland. Who conducted these operations (section 325) ? Trace on the 
map about how he must have moved during 1862, and mark two impor- 
tant battlefields (section 325). What Federal general opposed him?] 
[7. The defense of Vicksburg involved a number of separate opera- 
tions. General W. T. Sherman here made his name on the Federal 
side. General Stephen Lee became the hero of the Confederates. 
Either would form a thrilling subject for an essay. (See Ropes, Story 
of the Civil War ; Wrong, Battle and Leaders of the Civil War and 
Confederate Military History.)] 8. How was Vicksburg taken? 

9. While these great struggles were taking place in the west, what 
were the Federal armies in the east tr>'ing to accompHsh ? [10. Com- 
pare McClellan's use of the sea with Howe's use of the sea in the Revo- 
lutionary War (sections 157, 162, 327).] 11. Who drove McClellan 
back from Richmond? How? 12. What was the purpose of Lee's 
rush across Virginia to Manassas? 13. Describe the battle of Sharps- 
burg on Antietam Creek. 14. What great battle took place in Virginia 
during the next eight months? 15. Describe the battle of Gettysburg. 

16. What were the purposes of the blockade? (Two answers) 

17. Why did Lincoln want to prevent cotton from going abroad? 

18. Why did the South have to send to Europe for munitions of war? 
[19. What was the meaning of "Cotton is king"? (Here the teacher 
can bring in the great importance of trade in diplomacy. A foundation 
can be laid for understanding later the quarrels of the world over mar- 
kets and the relation of these quarrels to the World War.)] 20. Ex- 
plain the importance of Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. [21. Tell 
the story of Napoleon's intervention in Mexico. (See Stephenson, 
Abraham Lincoln and the Union (chap, vii) and The Day of the Con- 
federacy (chap, viii).) I 

22. What was the plan of the war between the Mississippi and the 
Atlantic in 1864 and 1865? [23. How did this pincerlike plan resemble 
a plan of the royal generals in the Revolutionary War (sections 172, 
174)?] 24. What terrible series of battles was fought between Grant 
and Lee? 25. Meanwhile, what did Sherman do? 26. What, as the 
result of these two Federal advances, was Lee's situation early in 1865 ? 
27. Where was he at last surrounded? Who surrendered to Sherman? 

28. Turn now to the war beyond the Mississippi. Why was it 
important for both sides to secure Texas ? 29. Who defended Galves- 
ton? 30. What victory of Kirby Smith's prevented the invasion of 
Texas? 31. What surrender brought the war to an end? Where? 




BUILDING THE GOVERNMENT RAILROAD IN ALASKA 

CHAPTER XX 

THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE UNION 

347. Second Election of Lincoln; his Plan for the South. 
While Sherman was in Atlanta (section 344) and Grant 
was besieging Petersburg (section 343), Lincoln was re- 
elected. All through that dreadful last winter of the war 
he was planning what to do for both North and South 
the moment the fighting ceased. His spirit was shown in 
his second inaugural address, which contained words that 
have long been famous : 

With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in 
the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive to finish 
the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for 
him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his 
orphan — ^to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and last- 
ing peace with ourselves and with all nations. 



What Lincoln had in mind to do for the South was revealed 
by a talk he had with his cabinet shortly after his second 
inauguration. He told them that he wished to have Congress 

373 



374 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

appropriate four hundred million dollars to be distributed 
among the Southern states to offset the loss of the slaves and 
enable the Southern people to start over. What other states- 
man has had such plans at the end of a victorious war ! 

348. The Assassination of Lincoln. But all Lincoln's gen- 
erous plans were brought to naught by one half-insane 

fanatic. On the night of April 
14, 1865, while Lincoln was 
attending a performance in 
Ford's Theater, Washington, 
an actor, John Wilkes Booth, 
stole up behind him and shot 
him through the head.^ He 
died the next day. 

349. President Andrew John- 
son; Southern Governments; 
the Thirteenth Amendment. 
Lincoln was succeeded by the 
vice president, Andrew Johnson 
of Tennessee. Johnson's first 
duty was the formation of new 
governments in the Southern 
states. When the L^'nion armies overran these states the 
governors and legislatures either fled from the capitals or 
were driven out by the soldiers. The question now was, 
What governments shall be organized to take the place of 
those that were there formerly ? Johnson attempted to meet 
this question by issuing a proclamation permitting all but 
a few- of those who had voted in i860 to take part in 
forming new state governments on condition that they would 
take an oath faithfully to " support, protect, and defend the 



A 


f^ 


i 


^ 


1 


^' 



ANDREW JOHNSON 



' Booth, with other fanatics, had formed a conspiracy to ivill a number 
of prominent officials. Other attempts at assassination were made but with- 
out success. Booth, after escaping from the theater, was shot while 
attempting to elude pursuit ; four others were caught and hanged. 

2 The exceptions were chiefly high officers of the Confederacy. 



THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE UNION 375 

Constitution and the Union." He also required a promise 
to support an amendment (the Thirteenth) to the Constitu- 
tion abolishing slavery/ These conditions were accepted 
throughout the South. Slavery was abolished, new state 
governments were set up, and senators and representatives 
were sent to Washington. 

At the same time laws were passed by Southern legisla- 
tures providing for the control of the great numbers of now 
idle negroes, who generally believed that the United States 
intended to seize the plantations of the former masters and 
divide the land among the emancipated slaves, who were now 
called freedmen. Already they had received aid in many 
ways from the Freedman's Bureau, established by the Fed- 
eral government to look after these ''wards of the nation," 
as the abolitionists called the freedmen. Somehow a rumor 
had got started, and was eagerly believed by the freedmen, 
that very soon the Bureau would give every negro "forty 
acres and a mule." Therefore most of them refused to do 
any work. The new laws, which were spoken of as ''black 
codes," were designed to force the negroes to go to work and 
also to prevent disorder among the unemployed. 

350. Congress refuses to admit the New Representatives 
(1865) ; the Fourteenth Amendment (1866). The majority 
in Congress resented what the President had done. Further- 
more, some extreme abolitionists wanted the new gov- 
ernments to give the right to vote to all the freedmen, 
while the more moderate abolitionists were honestly afraid 
that the freedmen would be ill used by the Southern state 
courts and legislatures. The new laws for the regulation 
of unemployed blacks were misrepresented by enemies of 
the South, and many Northerners were persuaded that 
they aimed at a restoration of slavery. Then, too, there 
were members of Congress who clamored for vengeance on 

1 The Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to states that had not 
seceded. The Thirteenth Amendment apphed everywhere. It went into 
effect on December 18, 1865. 



376 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the whole South, partly because of the war, party because 
it was a Southern sympathizer who had murdered Lincoln. 
Congress refused to admit the senators and representatives 
of the " reconstructed " states.' The angry protest of Johnson 
was disregarded. 

Congress proceeded to draw up its own plan for recon- 
structing the Southern states. It proposed to admit senators 
and representatives from the South as soon as their respec- 
tive states should ratify a new amendment to the Constitu- 
tion, the Fourteenth,- which provided ( i ) that negroes should 
be recognized as citizens (though this amendment did not 
give them the vote); (2) that all the Confederates who had 
ever held office under the United States should be disquali- 
fied from holding national or state offices unless pardoned 
by Congress ; ( 3 ) that no state should pay the debt incurred 
while fighting for the Confederacy. 

Tennessee at once accepted these terms, ratified the amend- 
ment, and was formally readmitted by Congress (1866). 
The other states refused, especially because the amendment 
required them to exclude all their leading citizens from 
holding office. 

351. Congress reconstructs the States (1867). Congress 
then passed over the President's veto a Reconstruction Act. 
Under this act all the states of the former Confederacy 
excepting Tennessee (section 350) were subjected to mili- 
tary governors who were to make lists of voters. In these 
lists all negro men were to be included. The majority of 
whites, on one ground or another, were to be deprived of the 
vote. Conventions elected largely by negroes were to draw 
up new state constitutions. 

352. The Impeachment of Johnson. While the work of 
President Johnson was thus being swept aside, there was 

'The Constitution, Article I, Section V, empowers each House of Con- 
gress to "judge of the election returns and qualifications of its own members." 

2 Accepted by three fourths of the states, it was proclaimed as part of 
the Constitution on July 28, 1868. 



THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE UNION 377 

bitter wrangling between him and Congress. The majority 
in Congress beheved that the President would try to prevent 
the carrying out of the Reconstruction Act, and now they 
decided to make a bold attempt to remove him from office. 
He was impeached.'^ However, this trial of the President 
— the most noted in our history — ended in acquittal by a 
majority of one vote. 

353. The New Southern Governments (1868); the Fifteenth 
Amendment (1869). Meanwhile, in the six states North 
and South Carolina, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, and 
Arkansas the military governors had reconstructed the gov- 
ernments in the way Congress had ordered. Senators and 
representatives from these states were received by Congress 
and allowed to take their seats (1868). The reconstruction 
of the four remaining states of the Confederacy — Georgia, 
Virginia, Mississippi, Texas — went on more slowly, but by 
1870 they also had governments which were satisfactory 
to Congress. 

In this way Congress had given the right to vote to all 
negroes in the reconstructed states. But it was still possible 
for a state government to take this right away if it chose. To 
make that impossible the Fifteenth Amendment was pre- 
pared by Congress (1869) and accepted by the states (1870). 
It forbade every state, North and South, to deny to negroes 
the right to vote. 

354. New Conditions in the South. Life in the South was 
now utterly different from what it had been in the old days 
(section 131). In most cases the ladies and gentlemen in 
their great plantation houses found themselves deserted by 
their former servants. There were, to be sure, a few excep- 
tions. When General Clayton called together all the negroes 
on his plantation and told them they were no longer his 

1 That is, he was accused by the House of Representatives of " high mis- 
demeanors in office." When a president; is thus accused, the Senate acts as 
jury and the Chief Justice as judge. Two thirds of the senators must 
agree in order to convict him. 



378 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



property but were all free, they replied, "Master, we want to 
stop right here with you." But many thousands of negroes 
were eager to wander about because now they were — as they 
put it — ''free as birds." The owners of the plantations 
being now so often without any laborers frequently found it 
very difficult to maintain their families. There are remem- 
bered many instances of 
Southern ladies sitting at 
their dinner tables, on which 
were rare china and beau- 
tiful silverware but scarcely 
any food. All the whites 
were heavily taxed by the 
reconstructed legislatures, 
which were composed very 
largely of former slaves. 
In each state a detachment 
of Federal troops upheld 
the power of the new gov- 
ernment. The terrible con- 
sequences of all this will 
appear in Chapter XXII. 

355, "An Indestructible Union of Indestructible States." 
While all these bitter contentions went on with regard to the 
reconstruction of the Union, people were asking : '' But what 
about secession ? Has that question been settled ? " During 
the progress of reconstruction the Supreme Court of the 
United States gave an answer. It made a formal declaration 
(1869) that the law of the land forbade a state to secede. 
In words that are now very famous it asserted that our 
country is "an indestructible union of indestructible states." 

356. The Atlantic Cable. But we must not imagine that 
these unhappy events were the only things that took place 
during Johnson's administration. A company formed by 
Cyrus W. Field succeeded in connecting Europe and America 




PAYING OUT THE CABLE FROM THE 
HOLD OF THE GREA T EASTERN 



THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE UNION 379 



by a wire cable laid on the bottom of the Atlantic, for convey- 
ing telegraphic messages. Several million dollars were spent 
in the attempt. At first warships were used in the work ; 
afterward the Great Eastern^ the largest ship then existing. 
After long endeavor a cable that would last was constructed 
and laid along the ocean's 
bed (1866). Since then the 
happenings which occur in 
Europe during the forenoon 
are printed in the after- 
noon papers in America.^ 
357. The Purchase of 
Alaska. In Johnson's time 
we bought Alaska from 
Russia for $7,000,000. The 
Secretary of State, William 
H. Seward, who brought 
this about, was laughed at 
for doing so. People asked, 
^'What do we want with a 
refrigerator of a country ? " 
Since then gold has been 
discovered in Alaska, and 
the famous Klondike mines 
have yielded gold sufficient 
to pay the purchase price of Alaska many times over. Its 
fur trade, fisheries, and other resources are also of great value. 
358. The Monroe Doctrine and Napoleon III. One other 
event of Johnson's administration seems to us today the most 
significant of all. This concerned the presence in Mexico 
of the troops of the French emperor, Napoleon III. You 
will remember that Napoleon had taken advantage of the 
war to set up a ''Mexican Empire" (section 332). Thus he 
defied the Monroe Doctrine (section 233). 

1 There are now a number of cables. In 1902 the first Pacific cable was laid. 




AMERICAN OFFICERS AND SAILORS 

LANDING TFIE ATLANTIC CABLE AT 

NEWFOUNDLAND 



38o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

No sooner was war ended than the United States asserted 
the Monroe Doctrine. We demanded the recall of the French 
army from Mexico. This was the first time we had nego- 
tiated in a condition of preparedness. There were in the 
country at that moment more than a million veteran soldiers. 

We had little trouble in getting from Napoleon a promise 
to withdraw his army from the American continent. With- 
out the French army to protect him the emperor of Mexico 
was soon captured by the Mexicans and put to death. 

SUMMARY 

Lincoln, in the spirit of his own words, "with malice toward 
none," planned to aid the South in its effort to recover from the 
war. His plans were cut short by his assassination. Andrew John- 
son became president (April 15, 1865). He issued a procla- 
mation of amnesty under which most of the former Confederates 
were permitted to take part in forming new governments for the 
Southern states. These new governments ratified the Thirteenth 
Amendment. Congress refused to admit the senators and repre- 
sentatives of the reorganized Southern states (December, 1865) 
until those states should ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. 
Tennessee accepted these terms in 1866. The other Southern 
states refused to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. Congress 
thereupon drew up (1867) a plan of reconstruction under which 
new governments were formed composed largely of adventurers 
and negroes; the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified by these 
governments, and their senators and representatives were admitted 
to Congress (1868-1870). As President Johnson was violently 
opposed to the plans of Congress, his enemies made an unsuc- 
cessful attempt to impeach him (1868). Congress drew up the 
Fifteenth Amendment (1869); it was adopted by the states. 
About the same time the Supreme Court decided that a state 
could not be destroyed, that our country is "an indestructible 
union of indestructible states." Meanwhile Napoleon III was com- 
pelled to withdraw his French army from Mexico. A notable 
engineering feat of this period was the laying of the Atlantic cable. 



THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE UNION 381 

AIDS TO STUDY 

Note. For the period between 1865 and 191 4 the material available to 
the teacher has been richly increased in the past few years. On the other 
hand, material for the pupil remains scanty and ill-prepared except in con- 
nection with mechanical progress. The teacher will find it increasingly neces- 
sary to guide the pupil discreetly through those readings in the teacher's 
list that are of a popular character, such as the Chronicles of America. 

For the Teacher : Andrews, The United States in Our Own Time, 
chaps, i-vi ; *Bassett, United States, chap, xxviii ; Dunning, Recon- 
struction, Political and Econonric, chaps, i-iii ; Fess, Political Theory, 
chaps, xvii, xix ; *Fleming, The Sequel of Appomattox (Chronicles of 
America) and Documentary History of Reconstruction, I ; Hart, Con- 
teinporaries, IV, chaps, xxiii-xxiv ; MuzzEV, Readings, 453-479 ; *Ober- 
HOLZER, United States since 186^, I ; Paxson, The New Nation, 39-50 ; 
Rhodes, United States, V, chap, xxx; VI, chaps, xxxi, xxxii ; Taylor, 
Destruction and Reconstruction. 

For the Pupil : Elson, Sidelights, chaps, vii, viii, x ; Faris, Makers 
(chap, xx) and Great Epochs in A inerican History (3-69, 1 88- 195); Sparks, 
Men who made the Nation, chap, xii ; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 
254-287; Wright, American Progress, chap, xviji. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. How did Lincoln show his liberal attitude toward the South? 
2. How did President Johnson plan to reconstruct the state govern- 
ments in the South ? 3. What amendment was now passed and what did 
it provide? [4. Describe the labor situation in a Southern state in 1865 
and explain how the state legislature tried to deal with it. (See Bassett, 
United States, 601-603 ; Dunning, Reconstruction (American Nation 
Series) ; Fleming, The Sequel of Appomattox ; Oberholzer, United 
States since 1865, I ; Paxson, The New Nation, 39-43 ; Rhodes, His- 
tory, V, chap, xxx.)] 5. Why did Congress refuse to admit representa- 
tives from the South ? 6. What did Congress decide upon as the terms 
of reconstruction? 

7. What state accepted these terms ? 8. Under the Reconstruction 
Act what was done with the governments of the other Southern states ? 
Q. Ai'ter the abolition of the Southern state governments how for a time 
were the states ruled? 10. Whom did the military governors permit to 
vote? II. Why was President Johnson irr;peached? [12. Describe the 
constitutional convention held by a military governor in a Southern state 
(see Fleming and Oberholzer).] 13. What was the Fifteenth Amend- 
ment? 14. How did the Supreme Court describe our Union? 




AN INDIAN ATTACK ON A STAGECOACH 

SIXTH DIVISION. HOW THE AIMERIC^NS 
BECAME A UNITED NATION 

CHAPTER XXI 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 

359. The Advance of the Frontier. We have seen that our 
countrymen in the eighteenth century and the early nine- 
teenth century distinguished themselves by overcoming 
political obstacles and establishing an extensive democracy 
(section 265). In the nineteenth century we made this 
democracy a great power in the world. We did so partly 
through our inventive genius (Chapter XVII), partly through 
our success in taking possession of all our vast domain and 
adapting to our use its vast natural resources. Few things 
are more stirring than the westward march of the American 
people through the forests, across the prairies, over the 
snow-capped Rockies, to the sunset ocean. In a hundred 
years, between 1790 and 1890, the frontier line moved across 

the continent and disappeared. In 1890 the census bureau 

382 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 383 

reported that the country was no longer divided into two 
portions — the occupied and the unoccupied. The American 
people had taken possession of their whole country. 

The most noteworthy feature of this westward march is 
the fact that it was mainly a movement of individuals. It 
was not the action of a government deliberately planting 
colonies. What happened in 1790 was repeated every time 
the frontier was pushed a little farther to the west. Re- 
sourceful men and women gathered their belongings and set 
out with their families to seek their fortunes. They built 
towns or they settled farming regions. After a while they 
grew restless, or their children did, or newcomers came from 
the East and the community became fairly populous. And 
then in a man and a woman here and there a longing 
awakened to be off again into the wild country seeking better 
fortunes. Before long another family had taken the road 
toward the sunset — a man, a woman, their children, in a 
huge, covered wagon, facing westward, fearless, independent, 
ready to take whatever came to them and not whimper. 
That was the spirit in which Americans slowly, without any 
set plan, pushed the frontier across the continent. 

360. How Railroads followed Population. Almost as soon 
as settlers began making their way to California there was 
talk of a transcontinental railroad, but for a long time noth- 
ing was done. The mails from California were carried by 
pony express ; that is, by men on horseback, whose route 
extended from Sacramento through Salt Lake City to St. 
Joseph, Missouri. Presently a telegraph line was put up 
along the course of the pony express (1861), and then a 
wagon road was opened and stagecoaches traveled over it 
as on the Eastern roads in colonial days (section 128). But 
travel over this road was very dangerous. There were still 
many tribes of Indians roaming through the West ; often the 
stagecoaches were attacked and all their passengers killed. 
At last Congress offered to give an immense quantity of land 



384 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to any company that would agree to build a railroad across 
the continent (1862). The state of California also offered 
assistance. Two companies were formed : the Union Pacific 
built westward from Omaha ; the Central Pacific built east- 
ward from San Francisco Bay. They aimed to meet in Utah. 



ULYSSES S. GRANT, EIGHTEENTH PRESIDENT 

361. Grant elected President; the Transcontinental Railway. 
As the Western railways were approaching completion 
General Grant was elected president. Shortly after his in- 
auguration the railways met at Ogden, in Utah (May 10, 
1869). The last spike of the last rail connecting the two 
roads was made of gold. It was the gift of California and 
was driven by the governor of the state. Thus our first 
transcontinental railway was complete. It was then the 
most remarkable railway in the world. Between Omaha and 
San Francisco it crossed nine great mountain ranges. In so 
doing it climbed gradually to a height of eight thousand 
feet above the level of the sea ; thence it slowly twisted down- 
ward, among peaks so lofty that the snow on their summits 
has never melted, down through the greatest forests on the 
continent, to the shore of the ocean. 

362. The Land given to the Railroads; Population increased 
by the Railroads. This great road was followed by others, 
all of which received aid from Congress.^ The land given 
to these roads had an area, altogether, that was about five 
times as large as Pennsylvania. The first road alone received 
more land than is contained in the whole state of New York. 

And now began a new era in the history of the westward 
movement. In order to make money out of the West the 
railroads wished to see it peopled quickly. They had two 

1 The Northern Pacific was building; from 1870 to 1893. The most im- 
portant of the other roads aided by Congress are the Santa Fe system and 
the Southern Pacific. 




MAKING CAMP FOR THE NIGHT 

A caravan of emigrants crossing the Great Plains on their way to the West 

From a pen-etching by Sears Gallagher 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 



385 



arguments for persuading Easterners and Southerners to go 
West : ( I ) the great number of soldiers who had been away 
from their homes for four years found when they came home 
again that it was not always easy to get work ; ( 2 ) in the 
South so many plantations had been wrecked and so many 
people who had once been wealthy were now poor that there 
was a general willingness to go out to the new lands and 




DRIVING THE LAST SPIKE IN THE UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD 



start over. The agents of the railways assured the people 
of the East and of the South that the roads would not only 
give them lands for very little but that in all sorts of ways 
they would help them to develop the lands and get a new 
start in life. So it happened that just after the war many 
veterans of the great struggle moved to the West with their 
families and either became farmers on the lands of the rail- 
roads or helped to build the towns that everywhere sprang 
up along the line of rails. 

The railroad companies also made arrangements with 
steamship companies, so that immigrants newly arrived from 
Europe were induced to go directly West. The United 
States government had previously assisted in the settling 
of the West by passing the Homestead Act (1862), which 



386 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



provided that every settler who would become a farmer might 
have one hundred and sixty acres of land for nothing. This 
law was the cause of the popular song with the chorus 
"Uncle Sam is rich enough to give us all a farm." 

363. The New Life of the West. The rapid movement of 
population to the West transformed that whole region. Towns 

sprang up, it was said, over- 
night; forests disappeared as 
if by magic. Where but a 
few years before were open 
prairies and roaming Indians, 
immense wheat farms became 
in a few years very profitable 
investments. 

364. The Danger of the New 
West ; the Indian Wars. The 
question, of course, arose, 
What will the Indians do? 
For three hundred years the 
white men had slowly been 
driving the Indians back. 
Would the two races now fight 
their last great war? Presi- 
dent Grant tried to prevent 
this by keeping the Indians 
on tracts of land called reservations, which had been set 
apart for their use. But this did not please them ; they 
wished to be free, as of old, to roam the plains at will. 
Quarrels between whites and Indians led to a number of 
savage wars. The most serious was fought with the powerful 
tribe of the Sioux, led by their famous chief, Sitting Bull. 
In this war occurred one of the fiercest battles in the whole 
history of Indian fighting, — the battle of the Little Bighorn 
River in southern Montana. General Custer with a force 
of cavalry was surrounded by the Indians, and the whole 




AN INDIAN CHIEF 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 



387 



command was massacred (1876). By degrees, however, the 
Indians were subdued and the West was freed from its dread 
of Indian outbreak/ 

365. New Commerce: the Way to Asia; Power of the Rail- 
roads. The transcontinental railroads opened a new way 
to Asia. Before that time tea, silks, spices, and many other 




AN INDIAN PUEBLO 

Throughout the Southwest there were many Indian villages like this 

articles came to Eastern seaports after a long voyage round 
Cape Horn (section 283). Often the voyage took five or Six 
months. Today, by using the railroads across the country, 
tea can come from China through Seattle or San Francisco to 
New York in about a month.^ Of course this overland trade 
with Asia gave the railroads a great deal to do, and the money 
paid for carrying this freight helped to make them rich. 

^ Later the plan of keeping Indians on reservations was partly given up. 
By the Dawes Act (1887) Congress made it possible for an Indian to own 
land and become a citizen of the United States. This law was amended in 
1896. Under it many thousand Indians have become citizens. In 1919 the 
government reported that the Indians numbered 333,702. 

2 Today a traveler can go from New York to San Francisco in the same 
time it took Washington to go from Philadelphia to Boston — about four days. 



388 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The railroads, grown rich and powerful, began saying to 
the settlers and to the towns along their lines, ''You must 
do what we wish you to do or we won't haul your products 
to market." As all the Western farmers had to send a large 
part of their products to the East for sale, the railroads had 
them at their mercy. 

366. The Rise of Great Corporations. These powerful rail- 
roads were corporations ; that is, associations of business 
men who all contributed money to carry on the business, 
chose officers to conduct it for them, and received from the 
government a charter giving them various privileges. About 
the same time that the railroads became so powerful, cor- 
porations were formed to carry on other sorts of business. 
The most celebrated of these was the Standard Oil Com- 
pany, founded by John D. Rockefeller. This company aimed 
to get control of the whole oil business of the United States.^ 

Other corporations quickly imitated the Standard Oil Com- 
pany, each aiming to get control of some one line of business. 
They were popularly called trusts.- These trusts made ar- 
rangements with the railroads by which the two groups of 
corporations helped each other to make money. A trust 
would agree to give a great quantity of business to a railroad, 
and the road would agree to haul the freight sent over its 
roads by the trust at a lower rate than it would charge to a 
competitor who was trying to do business in a small way 
against the wishes of the trust. ^ 

367. The New Questions brought about through the Rise 
of the Corporations. As the great corporations increased in 
wealth and power the workpeople began to fear their dic- 
tation. Workmen had already begun to demand shorter 

^The first oil well was opened in Pennsylvania in 1859. 

2 Because in some cases the control of their business was vested in a board 
of trustees representing the stockholders. 

^ After long protest against the power of the railroads, Congress passed 
the Interstate Commerce Act (1887), forbidding the railroads to discrimi- 
nate in favor of any shipper. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 389 

hours of labor. The United States government had long be- 
fore made ten hours of work a legal day's labor for all its 
employees. Workmen in other lines of business protested 
against being required to work longer in the course of a day 
than government workers did. Some even began demanding 
still less work — only eight hours every day. Of course all 
these reductions in the time of the working day compelled the 
corporations to employ more men and cost them more money. 
The employers all tended to act together to prevent the short- 
ening of the day's work, and the workmen began associating 
together to oppose the employers. The first successful asso- 
ciation for this purpose was the Knights of Labor (1869). 
It was followed by others. Before long, in almost every 
trade, the workmen had organized a union — a society which 
in many cases fixed the number of hours its members should 
work each day and the price they should demand. Between 
these two sets of organizations — the corporations, on the 
one hand, and the labor societies, on the other — there were 
bitter disputes. 

368. Colorado Admitted ; Philadelphia Exposition. In the 
hundredth year of our independence the Centennial state, 
Colorado, was admitted to the Union. The hundredth 
anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence was celebrated by a great international exposition 
held at Philadelphia. Buildings which covered about 
seventy-five acres contained a wonderful display of the 
wealth and resources of the United States. But the most 
remarkable part of the display consisted of machinery. 
The thousands of new machines exhibited at Philadelphia 
showed that the old days, when most of the labor of men 
was handwork, were gone forever. The Age of Machinery 
had begun. 



390 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

SUMMARY 

Our great achievement in the nineteenth century is the utiliza- 
tion of our own enormous country. A large part of this achievement 
was the development of the West. In 1869 the first railway 
across the continent was completed. These great corporations, 
owning enormous tracts of the most desirable Western land, 
changed the conditions of Western life. They attracted settlers. 
New towns, naturally, were formed around railroad stations. 
The favoritism shown by the railroads led Congress to inter- 
vene by legislation aimed to reduce their influence. Meanwhile, 
another sort of powerful business corporation had become a feature 
in American life. Various trusts aimed to monopolize entire 
industries. These, also. Congress has tried to control but not 
with much success. The growth of corporations — railroads, trusts, 
other great commercial organizations— alarmed the workingmen, 
who began organizing labor societies to offset these powerful 
money societies. During the ten years following the War of 
Secession several Indian wars were necessary to protect the new 
settlements in the West. The rapid occupation of the West was 
indicated by the admission of Colorado in 1876. The same year 
the Centennial Exposition was held in celebration of the hundredth 
anniversary of our independence. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher: Andrews, United States, chap, xi; Bassett, United 
States, chaps, xxxii, xxxv ; *Becker, United States, chap, vi ; Bogart, 
Economic History, chaps, xxv, xxix, xxxii ; *Brigham, Geographic Influ- 
ences, chaps, viii, ix ; Callexder, Economic History of the United States, 
chap, xiv ; Dewey, National Problems, chaps, iii, xii, xviii ; Hendrick, 
The Age of Big Business (Chronicles of America); Macdonald, Source 
Book, 58 1-590 ; Moody, The Railroad Builders (Chronicles of America) ; 
Muzzey, Readings, 481-493; *Paxson, The New Nation, chaps, ii, ix, 
X, xviii ; Sp.\RKS, N'ational Development, chaps, iv, v, xiv. xv. 

For the Pupil : Barstow, The IVestward Afoi'cment, chap, xxii ; 
Fakis, Real Stories from Out ///j/^jry, chaps, xxviii-xxx, xli ; CIuitteau, 
Preparing for Citizenship, chap, xviii; HiTCiicOCK, The Louisiana Pur- 
chase, chap, xxiv ; Lomax, Cowboy Songs and other Frontier Ballads ; 
Paxso.v, The Last American Frontier, chaps, xiii, xxii ; Taluot, My 
People of the Plains. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 391 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. What was the great achievement of the Americans in the nine- 
teenth century ? 2. We made our democracy a great power in the 
world through our success in two Unes of endeavor. What were they? 
[3. Describe the westward march of the American people. (See Dodd, 
Expaiision and Conflict, chap, vii ; Brigham, Geographic Influences, 
chaps, viii-xi ; Bruce, Romance of American Expansion ; Paris, Real 
Stories, chap, v ; Garrison, Westward Extension, chaps, i-xvi ; Paxson, 
The New Nation, chaps, ii, vi, ix.)] [4. Draw on a map the approxi- 
mate frontier of settlement in 1800, 1825, and 1850, using the same 
references as in problem 3.] 

[5. Describe an early journey across the continent ; for example, 
the Donner party or Whitman's party or a company of Forty-niners. 
(Use the same references as in problem 3 ; also Bourke, On the .Bor- 
der with Crook ; Parkman, The Oregon Trail ; Skinner, Adventurers 
of Oregon; White, The Forty-Nitters.)] [6. Write a brief account 
of the building of the Union Pacific Railroad. (See Barstow, Progress 
of a United People, 135-140 ; Bassett, United States, 680-683 ; Moody, 
The Railway Builders, chap, viii ; Paxson, The New Nation, 20-26 ; 
Last American Frontier, chap, xiii.)] 

[7. Review the history of the public lands down to the passing of 
the Homestead Act (see sections 185, 186, 289, 362 ; also Becker, 
The United States, chap vi).] 8. How was the West changed by the 
rapid immigration that followed the building of the railroads ? 
[9. What was the condition of our Pacific commerce and how was it 
affected by the railroads (see sections 283, 365)?] 10. How did the 
railroads attempt to control the settlers along their lines? 11. As the 
railroads grew in power other great corporations arose. Explain what 
you mean by "corporation." What did the Standard Oil Company try 
to do? 12. What have trusts done that has made them unpopular? 
13. How do workingmen feel toward trusts ? Why ? 14. Explain what 
you mean by a union ? 15. What was demonstrated by the Philadelphia 
Exposition of 1876? 




PALACE OF THE LIBERAL ARTS, COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, CHICAGO, 1893 



CHAPTER XXII 

INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS AND MONEY PROBLEMS 
RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, NINETEENTH PRESIDENT 

369. The Contested Election of 1876. President Grant 
served two terms. The Republican candidate for president 
in 1876 was Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio; the Democratic 
candidate, Samuel J. Tilden of New York. The election was 
very close. Feeling was intense, and owing to inaccuracies 
in the records of the voting in several states both parties 
claimed the election. To settle the matter an electoral com- 
mission was appointed by Congress ; it consisted of five 
senators, five representatives, and five justices of the Su- 
preme Court. Eight members of the commission were Re- 
publicans ; seven were Democrats. The commission decided 
only two days before the inauguration, by a party vote of 
eight to seven, that Hayes had been elected. 

370. The Southern Problem. The most urgent problem 
confronting the new president was the condition of the 

392 



INDUSTRIAL AND MONEY PROBLEMS 393 

South. Those reconstructed state governments set up by 
Congress (section 351) had legislatures composed almost 
wholly of negroes, and these men, unaccustomed to act with- 
out orders, were easily led by unprincipled whites, who 
professed to be their friends. The latter were either ^'carpet- 
baggers" from the North — so called because they had no 
property except what might be carried in an old-fashioned 
valise called a carpetbag — or Southerners of low character 
known as '' scalawags." Under the direction of these 
vicious leaders black legislatures taxed the whites so heavily 
that often plantations had to be sold to pay the taxes. The 
money thus raised was expended in whatever way the carpet- 
baggers and the scalawags directed. In one year the carpet- 
bagger legislature of South Carolina spent $350,000 for 
liquor and cigars. In an attempt to break the rule of the 
carpetbaggers the Southerners organized a great secret 
society called the Ku-Klux Klan. The carpetbaggers and 
scalawags then organized their black followers in secret 
societies, of which the most important was the Union League. 
Between the two organizations there was for a time virtual 
civil war. For several years the carpetbaggers were able to 
secure aid from the national government because they led 
the North to believe that the Southerners were still at heart 
aiming at secession. National troops were sent to the aid 
of the carpetbagger governors, but at length President Grant 
refused to continue the practice and told the governor of 
Louisiana (a carpetbagger) that if he could not stay in 
office without the aid of soldiers he must shift for himself. 
371. The Act of Amnesty; President Hayes and the South. 
About the same time a number of Northern Republicans, 
headed by Charles Francis Adams (section 331) and Carl 
Schurz (section 288, note), secured the passage through Con- 
gress of the Act of Amnesty (pardon), which gave back the 
right to vote to all but a very few Confederates. Soon after, 
in South Carolina, General Wade Hampton organized what 



394 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



was virtually an army to oppose the carpetbagger governor 
of that state. It seemed as if actual civil war would soon 
break out in South Carolina. 

Just then President Hayes came into office. He was in 
sympathy with the men who had passed the Act of Amnesty 
and believed that his first duty was to heal the breach be- 
tween North and South. To 
indicate his attitude he made 
a former Confederate general, 
D. M. Kee of Tennessee, a 
member of his cabinet. He 
next withdrew the Federal 
troops from the Southern states. 
The carpetbagger governors 
also withdrew, and their op- 
ponents quietly took possession 
of the state governments. The 
negroes gave up the attempt 
to vote in those states, and 
thereafter the white voters 
again controlled the elections. 
372. Engineewng Triumphs : the St. Louis Bridge ; the 
Mississippi Jetties. During President Hayes's administration 
a famous engineer, James B. Eads, who had previously con- 
structed a gigantic steel bridge across the Mississippi at 
St. Louis, finished a still greater undertaking at the river's 
mouth. Navigation of the Mississippi was rendered diffi- 
cult because the huge stream is forever discharging quanti- 
ties of mud that used to bank up at its mouth and form 
''bars" on the edge of the gulf. These bars were threatening 
to divide the river into numerous channels, each too small 
to be of use. Captain Eads discovered that there was a 
powerful current moving through the Gulf of IMexico a few 
miles out to sea. He reasoned that if the mud of the river 
could all be carried out and dumped into the current, it 




RUTHERFORD B. HAYES 



INDUSTRIAL AND MONEY PROBLEMS 395 

would at once be swept away and would no longer accumu- 
late in bars. To carry the mud out to sea he proposed to 
stop up all the channels but one, and from this one build 
a pair of dikes, or jetties, which should really be artificial 
banks prolonging the river to the edge of the powerful gulf 
current. Congress (1875) gave him money with which to 
build the jetties. He did so, and the result proved his 
theory (1879). Since then the mouth of the Mississippi has 
been open. Today New Orleans is only less important than 
New York among American seaports. 

373. The Cotton Exposition, 1881; the New Orleans Ex- 
position, 1884; the Atlanta Exposition, 1895. The revival 
of prosperity throughout the South was shown by the 
Atlanta Cotton Exposition in 1881 and again by the Cotton 
Centennial held at New Orleans in 1884. Just a hundred 
years previous the first shipment of American cotton (sec- 
tion 209) was sent from Charleston to Liverpool. It was 
contained in eight bags. In the year the Cotton Centen- 
nial was held nearly four million bales were exported. Since 
then the annual export has increased to ten million bales 
and over. 

The wonderful recovery of prosperity in the South was 
further shown bj?- another exposition, held at Atlanta in 
1895. The buildings were placed in Piedmont Park, where 
Sherman had planted his batteries to shell the city very 
nearly thirty years before. 

374. The New South ; Manufactures ; the Fall Line. The 
South is no longer, as it once was (section 241), a purely 
agricultural country. INIanufacturers everywhere through- 
out the South are rivaling their competitors in the North 
and West. In developing their works they are assisted by 
excellent water power. Suppose you lay down a map of the 
seaboard states and mark the head of navigation on the 
course of every river (that is, the point where rapids or 
falls prevent vessels from ascending farther) ; you will find 



396 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



that at these places the water flows so swiftly that it can 
be used to turn mill wheels ; then connect all these points 
with a continuous line. Thus you will mark out what is 
known as the fall line, which means that all along that line 
the rivers crossing it are both large enough and swift enough 

to be useful in turning machin- 
ery. Now observe the string 
of cities that lie along this line 
(see adjacent map). These 
cities are the backbone, so to 
speak, of a belt of new manu- 
facturing towns strung along 
the fall line. 

375. Resumption of Specie 
Payments. During President 
Hayes's administration two 
important events took place 
affecting the coinage. One was 
the passing of a law (1878) 
requiring the Secretary of the 
Treasury to coin silver dollars. 
The other event is known as 
the resumption of specie pay- 
ments. When a government pays out coin to all its credi- 
tors it is said to be making specie (metal) payments. We 
have seen that our country during the war issued "green- 
backs" (section 311), which were simply promises that at 
some time in the future the government would give the 
holder, if he asked for it, a dollar in specie — that is, gold or 
silver — for every paper dollar; but until 1879 it had not 
done so, although for four years previously the Secretary 
of the Treasury had been collecting coin for this purpose. 
On January i, 1879, the government began paying out specie 
for its greenbacks. 




THE FALL LINE 

All along this line the abundance 
of water power has led to profit- 
able manufacture 



INDUSTRIAL AND MONEY PROBLEMS 



397 



JAMES A. GARFIELD, TWENTIETH PRESIDENT, AND 
CHESTER A. ARTHUR, TWENTY-FIRST PRESIDENT 

376. Garfield and Arthur; Assassination of President Gar- 
field; Civil Service Reform. In 1880 the Republicans again 
elected their candidates for president and vice president — 
James A. Garfield of Ohio and Chester A. Arthur of New 
York. President Garfield's ad- 
ministration was cut short only 
a few months after his inau- 
guration (July 2, 1 881). He 
was assassinated by Charles J. 
Guiteau. In the autumn he 
died and the vice president 
succeeded him. 

The assassin was an unsuc- 
cessful office-seeker, who, with 
many others, had been tor- 
menting the President for an 
appointment. At once there 
was a general demand for a 
change in the method of filling 
the government offices, so that the president should not 
any longer be persecuted as Garfield had been. Congress 
passed the Civil Service Reform Act, under which com- 
missioners are appointed who examine applicants for thou- 
sands of civil offices — that is, not military or naval offices — 
and make out lists of applicants who are satisfactory. From 
these lists appointments are made. About two thirds of all 
government appointments are now made in this way. The 
examinations are open to all, and thus a ''merit system" is 
replacing the old spoils system of Jackson's time (section 245). 

377. Revival of Interest in the Tariff; William McKinley. 
While President Arthur was in office the tariff^ again became 

^The war tariff (section 311) was still in force and high duties were 
charged on many imports. 




JAMES A. GARFIELD 



398 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE Ux\ITED STATES 

a subject of dispute. The Democrats demanded a lower 
tariff, while the Republicans wanted it made even higher than 
it was. For a while neither side succeeded in effecting a 
change. But the revival of interest in the tariff is further 

to be remembered because 
just then appeared in Con- 
gress the most noted cham- 
pion of high tariff in recent 
times — William McKinley of 
Ohio. 

Ever since then the dispute 
over the tariff has been one 
of the leading issues in Amer- 
ican life. The Democrats have 
always been trying to lower 
the tariff. The Republicans 
have opposed them and have 
succeeded several times in 
making it higher than ever. 
As the Republicans have been 
in power oftener than the 
Democrats, we have, during the last forty years, generally 
had a high tariff. The most famous tariff law is known as 
the McKinley tariff because IMcKinley had a great deal to 
do with getting it through Congress (1890).^ 




WILLIAM McKINLEY 



GROVER CLEVELAND, TWENTY-SECOND PRESIDENT 

378. The Democrats return to Power ; Cleveland elected ; 
how Capital and Labor opposed One Another; the Black 
List; Boycott; Federation of Labor. In 1884, for the 
first time in twenty-five years, the Democrats elected a 

1 President Cleveland (section 378) unsuccessfully urged Congress (1887) 
to reduce the tariff. The general plan of the McKinley tariff was extended 
by the Dingley tariff act (1897) and by the Paync-AIdrich tariff act (1909). 



INDUSTRIAL AND MONEY PROBLEMS 



399 



president, Grover Cleveland of New York, He was a strong 
man, who was not liked by all the members of his party, and 
he did not always succeed in getting Congress to do what he 
wished/ One of the most famous propositions which he 
made to it was this : he ad- 
vised Congress to pass a law 
compelling every dispute 
between labor and capital 
(section 367) to be arbi- 
trated by a commission — a 
special court — appointed by 
the government. Congress 
would not pass such a law. 
Let us see what caused 
the President to make the 
suggestion. 

The Trades Unions (sec- 
tion 367), which aimed to 
secure shorter days of work 
and higher wages, frequently 
ordered their members to 
strike in order to force the 
employers to grant the various demands of their workmen. 

The employers organized other societies to look after their 
special interests and introduced the custom of keeping a 
list of workmen who had taken conspicuous parts in strikes. 
This was called the black list. Such men when in search of 
work were often refused employment. 

The laboring men then began to practice what is called 
a boycott," which means that all agreed to have no dealings 
with an employer who was supposed to keep a black list, and 

^The Republicans had a majority in Congress and generally opposed the 
President. 

2 So called because of a certain Captain Boycott in Ireland who was so 
disliked by his neighbors that they all refused to work for him, buy from 
him, or sell to him. 




GROVER CLEVELAND 



400 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

also, as far as they were able, to prevent others from dealing 
with him. Labor and capital were practically at war. To 
increase the strength of the labor unions the American Fed- 
eration of Labor — which is a combination of many labor 
unions — was formed in 1886. 

379. The Year of Strikes. In the very year when the 
Federation was formed, so many labor troubles occurred 
that it has sometimes been called the year of strikes. First 
came a strike of street-car drivers in New York, then one 
strike after another. There were strikes as far west as 
Nebraska and as far south as New Orleans. Sometimes 
the strikers wanted an ''eight-hour day" for work (sec- 
tion 367); sometimes they wanted higher wages. In Chi- 
cago forty thousand men ''went on strike," and for a time 
the manufacturing part of the city seemed to have stopped 
busi'uess. Railway men joined the strikers, and until they 
went back to work it was impossible to move freight into 
or out of Chicago. 

And now, for the first time, "anarchists" — people who 
do not want any government at all — appeared in America. 
Taking advantage of the excitement of the moment some Chi- 
cago anarchists tried to get up a rebellion against the govern- 
ment. A meeting in Haymarket Square became disorderly, 
and the police ordered the crowd to disperse ; thereupon a 
dynamite bomb was thrown among the police, killing and 
wounding a number. The remainder, however, showing the 
courage we expect of American police officers, charged the 
crowd, seized the leading anarchists, and carried them off 
for trial. 

Four were convicted of murder and hanged. The work- 
ingmen not only of Chicago but of the whole country de- 
nounced the anarchists as the worst enemies of labor. 

380. Later Strikes : Homestead (1892), Pullman (1894), and 
the Great Anthracite Strikes (1902). We have had since 
that time a great number of strikes, some of them involving 



INDUSTRIAL AND MONEY PROBLEMS 401 

so many men that soldiers have been called upon to settle 
them. For example, there was the strike at the Carnegie 
Steel Works, Homestead, Pennsylvania (1892). The em- 
ployers hired a large number of detectives and organized 
them as an army which met the strikers in a number of sharp 
fights, both sides using firearms and killing their opponents. 
The governor of Pennsylvania, with the state troops, finally 
interfered and restored order. 

Perhaps the greatest of all strikes began near Chicago, 
among the workmen of the Pullman Car Company, who were 
threatened with a reduction of wages. They were joined by 
workers on all the railroads that entered Chicago (1894). 
On twenty-two railroads business was practically suspended. 
Chicago was for a time cut off from the rest of the country 
and could not get its usual supply of food, and a famine 
seemed possible. When the strikers held up trains carry- 
ing the United States mails President Cleveland used six 
thousand soldiers to stop this interference with the business 
of the Federal government. 

Equally serious was a strike among the anthracite miners 
in Pennsylvania (1902). It lasted five months, and during 
that time one hundred and forty thousand men were out of 
work. No anthracite coal was mined, and it is estimated 
that during those five months the country paid out a hundred 
million dollars which, except for the strike, would have been 
used in other ways. When this strike occurred President 
Roosevelt (section 394) was in office. Through his efforts 
the dispute between the owners and the workers of the mines 
was arbitrated by a Coal-Strike Commission, which decided 
that the workmen should have more wages and fewer hours 
of work and that future disputes should be settled by 
arbitration. 

To help in such difficulties Congress established the 
Department of Commerce and Labor (1903), which was 
subsequently divided (1913) into separate departments — 



402 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

one of commerce, the other of labor. The former collects 
and publishes a great mass of information that is useful in 
improving the condition of business ; the latter seeks in 
numerous ways to keep peace in the business world and 
to increase the usefulness both of labor and capital. 

381. Congress protects the 
Workingman ; Alien Labor Law. 
While Cleveland was president 
Congress took a step which the 
labor unions demanded — to 
protect American workingmen 
from unfair competition. It 
passed the Alien Contract La- 
bor Act, which forbade em- 
ployers to send to Europe and 
import laborers who, because 
they were accustomed to lower 
wages than we are accustomed 
to, would enable the employers 
to discharge American work- 
men and at the same time save 
money by employing the foreigners. Before the passage of 
this law numbers of workmen had lost their places because 
the employers were in the habit of importing labor. That 
was why the unions demanded a restriction upon immigra- 
tion in order to protect our own workingmen. 




BENJAMIN HARRISON 



BENJAMIN HARRISON, TWENT\^-THIRD PRESIDENT 



382. Election of Harrison (iBSB); Expansion of the West. 
The next president was a Republican, Benjamin Harrison 
of Indiana. During his administration six new states, all of 
which were Western, were admitted to the Union : Montana 
(1889), North Dakota (1889), South Dakota (1889), 



INDUSTRIAL AND MONEY PROBLEMS 



403 



Washington (1889), Idaho (1890), and Wyoming (1890).^ 
About the same time a new territory was created — Okla- 
homa,- which was once a part of the old Indian Territory. 
We purchased it from the Indians and opened it for settle- 
ment. The President gave notice that on a certain day, — 
April 22, 1889, — 
at the sound of a 
trumpet, anyone 
might cross the 
border of Okla- 
homa and take up 
land (section 362). 
When the soldier 
on guard was ready 
to blow the trum- 
pet about fifty 
thousand resolute 
people were en- 
camped just across 
the line, waiting 
for the signal. The 
moment the loud 
clear note of the 
trumpet rang through the air they poured across the line. 
Farms were laid out and towns sprang up as if an enchanter 
out of the Arabian Nights had commanded them to appear. 

^Utah was admitted shortly after (1896). The first settlers of Utah be- 
longed to a new religious denomination founded in 1820 at Elmira, New 
York, by Joseph Smith. They were called Mormons because they believed 
that a volume called "The Book of Mormon" was the word of God. The 
Mormons migrated in a body to Illinois and later continued their migration 
(1845) to the shores of the Great Salt Lake. The region was supposed to be 
a desert, and the few hunters who had explored it said the Mormons would 
starve. Their energy converted it into a garden; their frontier village has 
now become Salt Lake City. 

2 Admitted as a state in 1907. The word, in the speech of the Indians, 
means "beautiful land." 




MORMON TEMPLE, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 



404 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Within four months Guthrie had five thousand people, four 
daily papers, and six banks ; street railways were under 
construction, and the city was almost ready to be lighted by 
electric lights. 

383. The Preservation of the Western Forests. President 
Harrison sought to prevent the destruction of the forests of 




IRRIGATED LAND IN CALIFORNIA 



A prosperous orange grove has been cultivated on the irrigated land at the 

right, but only the plants of the desert can grow on the land at the left, 

through which the irrigation ditches do not run 



the West. By recklessly cutting down the forests settlers 
and lumber companies had contributed to the drying up of 
springs, thus reducing the water supply. Moreover, the 
clearing of the hillsides removed nature's means for holding 
the rainfall back and keeping it from pouring down all at 
once into the streams and thus producing floods. As a step 
toward preserving our forests, President Harrison set aside 
eighteen million acres of forest land which should always 
belong to the government. This was the beginning of what 
we now call the National Forest. 



INDUSTRIAL AND MONEY PROBLEMS 405 

384. The Columbian Exposition. In October, 1892, all 
over the United States, exercises were held in honor of the 
four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by 
Columbus. Previously Congress had decided to celebrate 
the event by holding an international world's fair. The city 
of Chicago obtained the privilege of supplying the site for 
the Columbian Exposition. 

The beautiful buildings of the Columbian Exposition stood 
in spacious gardens on the shore of Lake Michigan. The 
waters of the lal^.e were let into canals — basins that made 
floors of sparkling sapphire among shimmering, creamy 
walls. Nothing like this had been seen before in America. 
It gave us a new idea with regard to expositions. Before 
then we thought only of what the buildings contained ; since 
then we have thought of the whole thing as a work of art 
and have taken special interest in combining the buildings 
and their surroundings into a single effect of great beauty. 
This idea was admirably carried out at the Louisiana Pur- 
chase Exposition, held at St. Louis in 1904 to commemorate 
the purchase of Louisiana ; and again in the great exposition 
held at San Francisco in 191 5, which commemorated the 
discovery of the Pacific by Balboa (section 12) and also 
celebrated the opening of the Panama Canal. Artistically 
the most striking feature of this exposition was the use of 
electricity to decorate the buildings at night. It was the 
universal opinion that new and very lovely artistic effects 
were produced. 

PRESIDENT CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 

385. The Democrats recover Power; they divide on the 
Silver Question. Though the Democrats carried the election 
of 1892 and put Cleveland in office again they were unable 
to continue in power and were unsuccessful at the next presi- 
dential election. This was due very largely to a division 
among themselves over '^the silver question." To understand 



4o6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



this we must look back to the time of President Hayes, 
when a law was passed which required the Secretary of the 
Treasury to coin silver dollars (section 375). The govern- 
ment did not permit what is known as free coinage of silver, 
but it did permit free coinage of gold. That is, the owner 
of a gold mine might send his gold, in any quantity, to a 

government mint and have it 
turned into coin, paying only 
a slight charge to cover the 
cost. The owner of a silver 
mine did not have this privi- 
lege. And the price of silver 
was steadily falling. Those 
who were interested in having 
silver bring a good price on 
the market thought that its 
value would be much increased 
if silver owners were given 
the privilege of free coinage. 
Many people replied that since 
the price of silver had fallen 
very low, the silver dollar was 
not really worth a dollar and 
its coinage should be forbidden.^ President Cleveland was 
the leader of the ''gold" Democrats. The leader of the 
"silver" Democrats was William Jennings Bryan of Ne- 
braska. The silver men controlled the Democratic national 
convention of 1896, nominated Mr. Bryan for president, and 

1 Silver mining had become an important industry in Nevada in 1850. 
Later the famous Leadville mines were found (1877). Two laws designed 
to help the owners of silver were the Bland-Alison Act (1878) and the 
Sherman Silver Act (1890), both of which required the Secretary of the 
Treasury to purchase silver in large quantities for use as money. A silver coin 
weighs sixteen times as much as a corresponding gold coin. In i8q3, while 
the gold in a gold coin was worth its face value, the silver in a silver dollar 
was worth only sixty-one cents ; therefore, if a mine owner could have all 
his silver turned into coin he would greatly increase his wealth. 




Harris & Ewingf 



WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN 



INDUSTRIAL AND MONEY PROBLEMS 407 

declared that if they were successful they would give every 
owner of silver the privilege of free coinage. The ^^gold" 
Democrats refused to support Mr. Bryan and nominated 
their own candidate, John M. Palmer. 

386. Defeat of the Silver Men; Election of McKinley. The 
^'silver" Democrats were joined by some of the Republicans, 
but most of the Republicans were gold men. They nomi- 
nated William McKinley (section 377). The election was 
carried by the Republicans. Shortly afterwards we became 
involved in our Spanish War, and the dispute over silver 
ceased to command general attention. In 1900 the Republi- 
cans in Congress passed the Gold Standard Act, which put 
an end to the hope of their opponents for free coinage of 
silver. 

SUMMARY 

During the eight years that Grant was president the recon- 
structed governments of the Southern states were controlled by 
negroes led by white adventurers. They squandered the money 
of the taxpayers and created such bitter hostility that only the 
presence of Federal troops kept them in power. President Hayes 
(1877) withdrew the Federal troops from the South; thereupon 
the governments of the adventurers collapsed and the native 
whites again came into power. 

The South was rapidly recovering prosperity. Expositions held 
at New Orleans and Atlanta demonstrated its extent. Mean- 
while manufacturing cities were springing up in the South along 
the fall line. 

The West had developed a silver-mining industry, and Congress 
in the interest of mine owners decided to coin silver dollars 
(1878). During President Hayes's administration specie pay- 
ments were resumed. 

President Gariield was assassinated (1881) by a disappointed 
office-seeker, and Arthur became president. 

The tariff now became a party issue — Republicans favoring a 
higher tariff, Democrats advocating free trade. The Republicans 
in the main have controlled tariff legislation ever since. 



4o8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

President Cleveland (1885) was elected by the Democrats. 
The relations of capital and labor had become hostile. Capi- 
talists formed combinations to control their workmen and insti- 
tuted black lists. The workmen replied with boycotts and by 
uniting unions in the Federation of Labor. 

Congress has established the Departments of Commerce and 
of Labor. It has also protected American workmen by the Alien 
Contract Labor Act, forbidding the importation of cheap foreign 
labor by employers. 

During the administration of President Harrison (1889) six 
Western states were admitted and the territory of Oklahoma was 
opened to settlement. The National Forest was begun. The four- 
hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America was celebrated 
by preparations for the Columbian Exposition. The beautiful 
buildings of this exposition set a new standard that was strik- 
ingly developed in the expositions of St. Louis and San Francisco. 

Following the return to office of President Cleveland (1893) 
owners of silver mines demanded free coinage of silver at the 
ratio of sixteen to one. President Cleveland refused to meet their 
demands, though most of the Democrats, under the lead of 
Mr. Bryan, became advocates of "free silver." The Republicans 
in 1896 elected William McKinley on a platform opposing free 
silver. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher : Bassett, United States, chaps, xxix, xxxiii-xxxvi ; 
BoGART, Economic History, chaps, xx, xxii, xxv-xxvii, xxix; Brigham, 
Geographic Influences (chap, vi) and From Trail to Railway (chap, xiv) ; 
Bryan, The First Battle; Buck, The Agrarian C/usade (Chronicles 
of America); Callknder, Economic History, 727-737; *Clevklam), 
Presidential Problems, chap, i ; Dewey, Financial History, chaps, xiv- 
xvii, xix ; Fess, Political Theory, chap, xx ; Ford, The Cleveland Era 
(Chronicles of America); Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chaps, xxviii, xxxiii ; 
Hendrick, The Age of Big Business (Chronicles of America); Jenks, 
The Trust Problem ; Latane, United States as a World Power, chap, 
xvii ; *Lingley, Since the Civil War, chaps, ii-xvi ; Macdonalu, 
Source Book, 575-581 ; Mitchell, Organized Labor, chap, viii ; Moody, 
The Masters of Capital (Chronicles of America); Muzzev, Readings, 



INDUSTRIAL AND MONEY PROBLEMS 409 

461-545; Orth, The Armies of Labor and The Boss and the Machine 
(Chronicles of America); Osgood, History of Industry^ chap, xix ; *Pax- 
SON, The New Nation, chaps, iii-viii, xi-xv ; Thompson, The New South 
(Chronicles of America). 



PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. What was peculiar in the election of 1876? 2. What problem 
confronted President Hayes ? 3. The condition of the South was due 
largely to its legislatures. How were these legislatures composed? 
Explain the terms "carpetbagger" and "scalawag." [4. Describe a 
"reconstructed" government in a Southern state. (See Fleming, The 
Sequel of Appomattox (Chronicles of America) ; Oberholzer, The 
United States since 1685 (I) and The South in the Building of the Na- 
tion ; Rhodes, History, VIII, chaps, xli-xlii.)] [5. Write an account of 
the Ku-Klux Klan, using the same references as in problem 4; also 
Barstow, The Progress of the United States, 16-25 ; Page, Red Rock.] 

6. How did certain Northern Republicans assist the Southern whites? 

7. How did prosperity return to the South ? 8. What legislation 
grew out of the murder of President Garfield ? 9. What did McKinley 
stand for? 

10. What did President Cleveland propose as a means of settling 
labor disputes? Define "black" hst" and "boycott." What is the 
Federation of Labor and why was it formed ? 11. What happened dur- 
ing the "year of strikes"? [12. Name some famous later strikes and 
state some of their events. What president intervened in the anthra- 
cite strike of 1902? (See Orth, The Armies of Labor.)] 

13. How was the four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of 
America celebrated ? 14. What do you know about later expositions ? 
15. What did silver men want when they asked for free coinage of 
silver? 16. Why did gold men oppose them? 17. What three tickets 
appeared in the election of 1896? Who was elected? 



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BATTLE OF SANTIAGO 



CHAPTER XXIII 

THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 

WILLIAM McKINLEY, TWENTY-FIFTH PRESIDENT 

387. The United States and Cuba. A rebellion was going 
on in Cuba when President McKinley was inaugurated. 
That beautiful island, together with Porto Rico, formed the 
American possessions of the king of Spain — all that was 
left of the Spanish- American empire/ Several times the 
Cubans had tried to become independent, but each rebellion 
had been stamped out by a Spanish army. In 1897 the 
Spanish general, Weyler, was conducting a war with the 
Cubans and was showing such brutal ferocity that American 
sympathy had gone out to his desperate enemies. The stories 
told of his cruelty moved great numbers of our countrymen 
to demand that our government take sides with the unhappy 
Cuban "rebels." 

1 All the other American provinces of Spain had revolted and become 
independent republics (section 233). 

410 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 411 



But the government hesitated to do so. Suddenly some- 
thing happened that infuriated the whole American people. 
One of our war- 
ships,^ theMame, 
was lying at an- 
chor when the sun 
went down, Feb- 
ruary 15, 1898, 
in the harbor of 
Havana. During 
the night it was 
blown up, and two 
hundred and sixty 
American sailors 
were killed. The 
explosion was ap- 
parently due to a 
submarine mine, 
and although it 
was not possible 
to determine who 
placed the mine, 
yet the American 
people felt that 
the responsibility 
must fall on the 
Spanish govern- 
ment. " Remem- 
ber the Maine ! " became a popular cry throughout the 
country. On April 19, the anniversary of the battle of 

^In 1884 the United States began building a new navy composed of 
modern steel ships of the most improved sort. Since then we have been 
making the navy more and more powerful, until now it has no superior ex- 
cept the gigantic navy of England. In the American navy the most powerful 
vessels — usually battleships — are named after states, while vessels next in 
size — cruisers — are named after cities. 




EASTERN ASIA AND THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



412 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Lexington, Congress passed resolutions recognizing the inde- 
pendence of Cuba, demanding the withdrawal of the Spanish 
forces from the island, and authorizing the President to make 
war upon Spain. 

388. Battle of Manila; the Pursuit of Cervera. Curiously 
enough the first battle of the Spanish War occurred in the 
Far East. An American fleet under Commodore George 
Dewey was at Hongkong. Acting on orders cabled from 
Washington, Dewey sailed for the Philippine Islands. 
Steaming into ]\Ianila Bay, over submarine mines and 
through the gun fire from Spanish fortifications, he met 
and destroyed a Spanish fleet. Soon afterwards American 
forces took possession of the islands. 

Spain had on the Atlantic a fleet of cruisers which was 
promptly dispatched to American waters under the com- 
mand of Admiral Cervera. Two American fleets — one com- 
manded by Admiral Sampson, one by Commodore Schley — 
sailed for the West Indies. When it became known that 
Cervera had reached the Cuban port of Santiago, these 
fleets united in a blockade. Soon afterwards an army under 
the command of General Shafter was landed near Santiago. 
Thus the place was besieged both by land and by sea.^ 

389. Battle of Santiago; the Rough Riders; Capture of Cer- 
vera. A Spanish army defended Santiago. In the series of 
bold attacks by the Americans (July 1-2, 1898) this army 
was defeated and driven back into the city. In these en- 
gagements a portion of the American army called the Rough 
Riders became famous. This body of horsemen was made 
up partly of Western ''cowboys," partly of Eastern uni- 
versity men. They had been gathered together by Theodore 
Roosevelt, who was given the rank of lieutenant colonel by 
President McKinley. 

^In an effort to close the mouth of the harbor Lieutenant Hobson, with 
only a handful of men, very daringly sank a collier, the Merrimac, almost 
under the guns of the Spaniards. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 413 

Since the Spanish army had been driven into the town, 
and the Americans had possession of high hills close by, 
Cervera with his fleet dared not remain in the harbor. He 
attempted to slip past the blockading fleet and escape, but 
his attempt failed. The Americans promptly attacked him 
and sank or captured every Spanish ship (July 3, 1898). 




SAN JUAN, PORTO RICO 



390. The Treaty with Spain ; we acquire Porto Rico and the 
Philippines; Hawaii. Santiago surrendered July 17, 1898. 
Shortly after, Spain and the United States agreed upon terms 
of peace : ( i ) Cuba became an independent republic under 
our protection, (2) the Spanish colonies of Porto Rico and 
Guam were ceded to the United States, and (3) the Philip- 
pines were transferred to American control in exchange for 
an indemnity of $20,000,000. 

Shortly before the treaty was drawn up the United States 
annexed the little republic of Hawaii (July 7, 1898). This 
was done largely because we had decided to hold the 



414 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Philippines and wanted Hawaii as a ''halfway house" 
between San Francisco and Manila. We were urged to do so 
by high authorities upon naval war, who considered Hawaii 
a necessary station if we wished to defend the Philippines 
against an Asiatic enemy.' 

391. Lessons of the Spanish War ; what the American 
Women did. The Spanish War taught us some useful lessons. 
For one thing it showed us that war is a business, and that 
in this business, as in any other, men must know how to deal 
with its problems. Our soldiers suffered terribly from ty- 
phoid fever because we did not know from experience how 
to make proper camps and protect them from disease. Be- 
cause the War Department did not understand the business 
of feeding an army, our men were short of food, or were 
given bad food, which caused sickness. 

In fact, owing to bad management, there was so much 
sickness in the army in Cuba that Colonel Roosevelt and 
other officers signed a letter saying, "This army must be 
moved at once or it will perish." The men in charge of the 
War Department had shown themselves, as a rule, mere 
bunglers. Fortunately private persons came to the aid of 
the government and to a great extent made up for the bad 
management of the officials. Among these a woman stood 
preeminent — the noted millionaire, Miss Helen Gould. It 
was largely through her efforts that the army, on being trans- 
ferred from Cuba to Long Island, was properly cared for 
in a scientific way. Another great lesson of the war was 
the new spirit of comradeship between Northerners and 
Southerners. Two of the most conspicuous figures were 

1 Hawaii was formerly under the rule of native sovereigns. Many 
Americans, however, had settled in Hawaii, and they were instrumental in 
changing the government from a monarchy to a republic, which asked to be 
admitted to the American Union. President Cleveland, who believed that the 
proposition was not approved by the bulk of the Hawaiian people, prevented 
annexation at that time (1893). Eventually the Hawaiian people became 
eager to enter the American Union. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 415 



ex-Confederate generals ; Fitzhugh Lee, a nephew of Robert 
E. Lee, and Joseph Wheeler, a famous cavalry leader, won 
fresh distinction in Cuba. 

398. Results of the War: our Protectorate over Cuba; our 
Occupation of the Philippines. As a result of the war we bear 
a peculiar relation to Cuba. It is a free and independent 
republic ; never- 
theless there is 
an understand- 
ing that we will 
promptly inter- 
vene whenever 
things go wrong 
and set them 
right. We did 
this in 1906, 
when an insur- 
rection broke 
out which the 
Cuban govern- 
ment could not 
quell. American 

forces restored order. It is the confident hope of this country 
that what we call a protectorate of the United States over 
Cuba will in the future be only a defense against possible 
foreign aggression. 

In the Philippines we have followed a different course, 
A native leader, Aguinaldo, headed a movement to drive out 
the Americans. Hard fighting for more than a year ended 
in complete victory for our troops and the submission of 
the Filipinos to American rule. Since then the islands have 
been under the protection of the United States ; that is to 
say, our president appoints their governor general, but the 
inhabitants of the islands elect their own legislature (con- 
sisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives) and 




NATIVE FILIPINO PLOWING WITH A CAR.'VBAO 



41 6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

manage their own affairs with very little interference on our 
part. They maintain an excellent system of public schools, 
collect their own taxes, and manage their own police, al- 
though some United States troops are kept in the islands. 
Our government is informed, through the governor general, 
of all acts of the legislature and has the right to yeto 
unwise laws. 

393. Further Results of the War : our policy in China — the 
"Open Door." Having established our power in the Philip- 
pines we were led by circumstances to increase our interest 
in whatever took place in Asia. Furthermore, our trade with 
Asia had grown so large that we were much concerned in the 
prosperity of all the Asiatic peoples ; therefore, when it 
became known that several European powers proposed to 
cut up China and divide it among them, the United States 
objected. We proposed (1899) to England to insist on pre- 
serving China as an independent country while allowing all 
nations to trade with the Chinese on equal terms. This was 
called the open-door policy. England agreed to it, and the 
other powers eventually consented. Thus our country was 
instrumental in preserving the independence of China. ^ 

THEODORE ROOSEVELT, TWENTY-SIXTH PRESIDENT 

394. Reelection and Assassination of President McKinley; 
Theodore Roosevelt becomes President. In the election of 
1900 the Republicans were again successful. President 
McKinley was reelected, with Colonel Roosevelt (section 389) 
as vice president. Shortly after his second inauguration 

^In bringing about this fortunate result the American and European 
governments were embarrassed by an uprising of fanatics called Boxers, who 
wished to drive all foreigners out of China. A joint army of Americans, Eng- 
lish, Germans, Russians, French, and Japanese was sent to Peking to protect 
foreigners. China was required to pay $330,000,000 as indemnity for the 
murder of foreigners. In 1907 we released China from the obligation to pay 
what was still due the United States — about $12,000,000. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 417 



President 'McKinley visited the Pan-American Exposition 
at Buffalo ( 1901). While holding a reception the President 
was shot by an anarchist (section 379) named Czolgosz^ 
and died within a week. President McKinley was of such an 
amiable and sympathetic nature that he was universally 
mourned. He was succeeded 
by Colonel Roosevelt. 

395. The Panama Canal. 
The new president was almost 
idolized by an enthusiastic 
following ; before he left the 
White House he had a hand 
in many notable undertakings. 
None of them aroused more 
general interest than the build- 
ing of a canal across the Isth- 
mus of Panama, For many 
years people had discussed the 
desirability of such a canal 
Some time before, a French 
company employed Ferdinand 
de Lesseps, who had built the 
Suez Canal, to construct a 
canal at Panama, but the French company failed and its plan 
was never carried out. For a while the world seemed to have 
lost interest in Panama, but during the Spanish War it be- 
came once more a subject of general interest. This was due 
to a famous voyage of our battleship Oregon, which, at the 
opening of the war, was at San Francisco. In order to join 
our fleet in the Atlantic, the Oregon steamed down to the 
Strait of Magellan and up the coasts of Argentina and Brazil. 
Here was something that proved the value of a canal across 
the Isthmus. Everyone now began asking why we didn't 
build the canal. Among the first thoughts of President 

^Czolgosz was executed for the Qrime the same year, 




© Baker Art Gallery 
THEODORE ROOSEVELT 



41 8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




Roosevelt after coming into office was the question, What 
should be done about the canal between the oceans? 

396. The Republic of Panama ; the 
Canal Zone. The line of the proposed 
canal crossed the state of Panama, 
which was a state of the United 
States of Colombia. The Colombian 
government refused the price offered 
by the United States for the privilege 
of constructing the canal ; thereupon 
the state of Panama, fearing the 
canal might be given up, seceded 
from Colombia and declared itself 
independent. We at once recognized 
the new republic (November 6, 
1903) and purchased from it the 
control over a strip of land ten miles 
wide from ocean to ocean. We paid 
$10,000,000 and promised a yearly 
Through this Canal Zone the Panama 




THE PANAMA CANAL 



payment of $250,000. 
Canal has been built. 



PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 

397. Election of 1904; our Dispute with Japan. In 1904 
President Roosevelt was reelected. He soon found himself 
involved in a dispute with Japan. The people of Cali- 
fornia believed it inadvisable to have the children of the 
Japanese who lived among them attend the public schools. 
It was finally forbidden. Thereupon the emperor of Japan 
complained to the President. He pointed out that we had 



^ The canal was completed in 1914, after ten years' work. The chief en- 
gineer was Colonel Georp;e W. Goethals. The cost was $375,000,000. Vessels 
passing through the canal are raised by means of locks to a height of eighty- 
five feet above the sea, and then by corresponding locks are let down again 
to the ocean level. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 419 

promised by treaty to allow such Japanese as happened to be 
in our country the rights and privileges, so far as schools 
were concerned, of American citizens. 

398. The President and the Californians. The President's 
first impulse was to reply that the provisions of the treaty 




THE FIRST SHIP THROUGH THE PANAMA CANAL 



would be carried out, whether California approved or not. 
But the Californians vigorously protested. Then it occurred 
to the President that after all they had a right to be con- 
sidered. Great bitterness had been caused in the past be- 
cause a majority of states ignored the wishes of a minority.^ 
To repeat that sort of thing, to say to the Pacific states, 
''You must conduct your schools not to suit yourselves but 
to suit the people of the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic 
states," struck him on second thought as dangerous to the 
peace of the country. He entered into negotiations with 

ipor example, see the embargo (section 225), the "Tariff of Abominations" 
(section 242), nullification (section 247), and reconstruction (section 350). 



420 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Japan, also with the Californians, and in the end effected a 
compromise. The emperor withdrew his protest and agreed 
that the lower classes of his people — the ones chiefly objec- 
tionable in California — should not be allowed to emigrate 
to America.^ 

399. The California Earthquake. One of the great disasters 
of our history occurred in 1906, when San Francisco was al- 
most destroyed by an earthquake shock. Twenty years be- 
fore we had thought our country safe from such dangers, and 
we were astounded in 1886 when Charleston suffered severe 
losses from earthquake. An invention, the seismograph, was 
installed at Washington and other places for the purpose of 
recording the tremblings of the earth ; though its delicate 
mechanism has revealed time and again that the earth was 
in commotion, we were again taken by surprise when in the 
earthquake of 1906 the great buildings of San Francisco 
reeled and shattered and the city fell in ruins. Between the 
earthquake and the fire that followed, half a million people 
were temporarily rendered homeless. The whole country 
contributed to relief funds for their benefit. 

400. "Roosevelt Policies"; Conservation. The most no- 
table of President Roosevelt's policies was his boldly success- 
ful course in foreign affairs. It will be told in the next chapter. 
At home his policies involved ( i ) strenuous enforcement of 
all the laws designed to reduce the power of certain powerful 
corporations (whose managers he was fond of describing as 
*' malefactors of great wealth") and (2) insistence on the 
importance of conserving natural resources (section 383). 
We had been grossly wasteful of our timber, our coal, of 
everything that we had in abundance. W^hen it was pro- 
tested that what we were wasting would be needed tomorrow, 
the reply was, '' Let tomorrow take care of itself." To 

^ Previous to this quarrel very friendly relations existed between Japan and 
the United States. President Roosevelt had invited Japan and Russia to send 
ambassadors to a conference in this country for the purpose of closing the 
Russo-Japanese War. The result was the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905). 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 421 

rouse interest in preventing waste, especially to check the 
reckless destruction of our forests, the President held a 
national conference on conservation (1908). A National 
Conservation Commission was appointed. To discuss the 
report of the Commission the President summoned a council 
composed of governors of the states (1908). The result of 
all this was a great increase of public interest in conservation. 
Congress passed new laws, placing enormous tracts under the 
control of the National Bureau of Forestry, Among these 
were the Appalachian Forest (1911) and the White Moun- 
tain Forest (1911), The nation now owns 163 forests, in- 
cluding 187,000,000 acres. 



WILLIAM H. TAFT, TWENTY-SEVENTH PRESIDENT 

401. The Arbitration Treaties; Election of President Taft, 
1908. The next president was William H. Taft of Ohio. He 
had served as Secretary of War and also as governor of the 
Philippines. Before that he was a judge in the United States 
courts. 

Being a great lawyer and also a hater of war, President 
Taft thought that nations ought to cease attempting to settle 
their disputes through bloodshed and should set up courts 
of arbitration, governed by international law, in which all 
their disputes might be tried and adjusted ; therefore on 
August 13, 191 1, he signed two treaties — one with France, 
the other with England. In each it was declared that the 
nations making the treaty are '' resolved that no future diffi- 
culties shall be a cause of hostilities between them or inter- 
rupt their good relations and friendships." Therefore they 
agreed in future to submit their differences to arbitration. 

402. History of Arbitration: Alabama Claims (1871); 
Bering Sea (1893) ; Venezuela (1897) ; South American Agree- 
ment (1907) ; the Hague Tribunal. There is no more interest- 
ing subject than the gradual turning of men's minds toward 



42 2 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



the idea that nations, like individuals, ought not to settle dis- 
putes by means of battle. We Americans have done much 
to help on this way of thinking. A number of times we have 
consented to arbitrate disputes with other powers instead of 
going to war. Among the most famous instances is the case 

of the Alabama claims 
(section 331 and note). 

In the first administra- 
tion of President Cleveland 
we got into a dispute with 
both England and Russia 
over the rights of the three 
nations as to catching seals 
in Bering Sea. The dispute 
was at last peacefully set- 
tled by arbitration { 1 893 ) } 
In Cleveland's second ad- 
ministration a sharp con- 
troversy with England led 
to a noted instance of ar- 
bitration (1897),- which 
strengthened in the two 
countries the feeling that 
all disputes could be arbitrated and that war was no longer 
necessary. One of the most striking events of President 
Roosevelt's second term was an agreement made by Elihu 
Root, the Secretary of State, with the republics of South 




WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT 



^The question was, Had the United States acquired control over the 
whole sea or only, as is the usual custom, over a strip three miles wide along 
the coast ? It was decided that our jurisdiction did not extend beyond the 
three-mile Hmit. 

2 England and Venezuela had long been in dispute over the boundary of 
British Guiana. President Cleveland announced that the Monroe Doctrine 
gave the United States the right to interfere as protector of Venezuela. He 
demanded a settlement by arbitration, which England at last accepted. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 423 

America to submit all disputes about money matters to 
arbitration and never to attempt settling them by war/ 

Meanwhile, at the suggestion of the Czar of Russia, the 
nations of the civilized world had established at The Hague 
(1899) a permanent Court of Arbitration, to which all inter- 
national questions might be referred. It is in this court that 
we have agreed to have our disputes with Latin America 
judged. 

403. Later Arbitration Treaties. Since the time of Presi- 
dent Taf t arbitration treaties have been made with numerous 
countries. In the next administration (section 404) the 
Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan (section 385), 
was an enthusiastic believer in arbitration. To him, espe- 
cially, is due the credit for the later treaties. 



WOODROW WILSON, TWENTY-EIGHTH PRESIDENT 

404. Election of 1912; Foreign Affairs the Great Prob- 
lem for President Wilson. Many Republicans thought that 
President Taft had become too conservative. These men 
called themselves Progressives. Led by ex-President Roose- 
velt they fought hard to prevent the renomination of the 
President. Failing to do so, they bolted the Republican 
party and put up ex-President Roosevelt on a ticket of their 
own. The Democrats nominated Woodrow Wilson, who was 
elected. President Wilson wished to give his attention to 

^A regular conference of all the American republics was advocated by 
James G. Blaine, Secretary of State under Harrison, who presided over the 
first international conference of American states (1890), which had been 
invited to assemble a year before by President Cleveland. The second con- 
ference was held in Mexico City (1901) ; the third at Rio de Janeiro (1906) ; 
the fourth at Buenos Aires (1910). To improve the relations of all these 
countries there has been established at Washington the Bureau of American 
Republics, now known as the Pan-American Union. 



424 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

questions of the tariff and of banking, but he was compelled 
by unexpected events to concern himself chiefly with foreign 
affairs/ 

405. Our Trouble with Mexico; Huerta; Vera Cruz; Car- 
ranza; Villa. A civil war had broken out in Mexico, and the 

leader of one of the factions, 
Huerta, had got control of the 
government. President Wil- 
son felt convinced that Huerta 
had gained his power by mur- 
der and treachery, and refused 
to recognize him as president. 
He gave encouragement to the 
enemies of Huerta, who, at 
last, under the lead of Venus- 
tiano Carranza, drove Huerta 
out of the country. Mean- 
while, however, for a short 
time, American troops had 
possession of Vera Cruz, which 
they seized because Huerta's 
followers had insulted the American flag. As soon as a 
proper government was reestablished at Vera Cruz the 
troops were withdrawn. 

But no sooner was Carranza in power than a new civil 
war began. A bandit named Villa, who hitherto had fought 
on the side of Carranza, now turned against him. Villa was 
hostile to Americans because our government was plainly 
friendly to Carranza. Often his followers crossed the Rio 
Grande and murdered Americans on our own soil. For a 




WOODROW WILSON 



^One important financial measure was passed in 1913 — the Federal 
Reserve Act. To improve our banking system Congress established Federal 
Reserve Banks, which receive deposits not from individuals but from other 
banks and also lend money to these banks. Furthermore, part of the 
government funds is deposited in Federal Reserve Banks and by them 
lent out. 



THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 425 

long time President Wilson patiently waited for Carranza to 
punish Villa ; but when Villa made a peculiarly daring raid 
on Columbus, New Mexico (March 9, 1916), where his 
soldiers committed shocking murders, the President could 
not wait any longer. He ordered an army to pursue Villa. 
A force commanded by General Pershing crossed the border ; 
thereupon Carranza, whom we had supposed was our friend, 
protested. He could not punish Villa himself nor would he 
consent to our doing so. At Carrizal troops of Carranza 
fought a skirmish with the Americans and killed about 
twenty of our soldiers. President Wilson at once mobilized 
the National Guard and assembled a strong army on the 
Mexican border. This brought Carranza to terms. It was 
agreed that the United States should withdraw from Mexico 
and that Carranza should police the Mexican border. At the 
same time he was notified that if he failed to do so Mexico 
would again be invaded. This settlement did not prove final, 
and ever since there has been disorder on the border and 
strained relations between the two governments. The ex- 
planation of Carranza's course now seems to be plain. It 
was probably part of a vast scheme to overawe our country, 
and this in turn was part of the foreign policy of the German 
Empire. The gradual development of that world-wide 
German menace will be narrated in the next chapter. 

SUMMARY 

Sympathy with the Cubans, who were in rebellion against 
Spain, led many Americans to demand intervention in Cuban 
affairs. Congress authorized the President to make war upon 
Spain (x\pril 19, 1898). The Spanish War opened with the naval 
victory of Commodore Dewey in Manila Bay. Admiral Cervera 
was blockaded at Santiago, Cuba, and the city surrounded. Its 
protecting army was defeated by American forces. Cervera, at- 
tempting to escape to sea, was overtaken and captured. Santiago 
then surrendered. Terms of peace acknowledged the independ- 
ence of Cuba and awarded Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines 



42 6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to the United States, while we agreed to pay Spain $20,000,000. 
During the war the United States annexed Hawaii. 

The scheme of certain European powers to partition China 
was strongly opposed by the United States. Our "open-door 
policy" was at length accepted by the other nations. 

On the assassination of President IMcKinley, soon after his 
second election, Theodore Roosevelt became president. During 
his first administration the building of the Panama Canal was 
begun. Early in President Roosevelt's second administration 
the emperor of Japan was brought to agree to restrictions on 
Japanese emigration to America. 

President Roosevelt's policies involved strenuous attempts to 
reduce the power of corporations, and insistence on conserva- 
tion of natural resources. A National Conservation Commission 
was created, and large additions were made to the National Forests. 
Roosevelt's successor, President Taft (1909), made his most 
important contribution to our progress by negotiating treaties for 
international arbitration. 

Dissatisfaction with President Taft inside the Republican party 
led to a bolt of Progressives, who nominated ex-President Roose- 
velt after the regular Republican convention had nominated 
President Taft. The Democrats nominated Woodrow Wilson, who 
was elected. The establishment of the Federal Reserve Bank 
was an important event in his first administration. Compli- 
cations arose with Mexico, and Vera Cruz was temporarily occu- 
pied by American troops. Subsequently, in order to prevent raids 
of Mexican bandits into the United States, General Pershing was 
sent into Mexico with an army, which was withdrawn when 
Mexico promised to keep peace on the border — a promise which 
she failed to keep. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher: Andkkws, L'ltited States, chaps, xxvii, xxviii ; 
Bassktt, United States, chaps, xxxviii-xl ; Booakt, Kcotioniic History, 
chaps. XX, xxiii, xxviii, xxx ; Cool. hum:, Lhtited States as a U'or/d J'o7i>er, 
chaps, v-viii, xv-xix ; *FisH, T/ie Path of Empire (Chronicles of America), 
chaps, ii-v; (iuiTTEAU, Go7>ern>nent and Politics, chap, xxxiii ; Hart, 
Cotitemporaries, IV, chaps, xxx-xxxii ; Howland, Theodore RooseTeit atid 
his Times (Chronicles of America) ; Macdonalu, Source Book, 597-608 ; 




Lake of O 1 
^he Woods 



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THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER 427 

*MiTCHELL, Organized Labor, chaps, xvii, xviii ; Muzzey, Readings, 
546-596; Ogg, National Progress, chaps, i-xvi ; Orth, The Armies of 
Za^^;' (Chronicles of America) ; *Paxson, The New Nation, chaps, xvi-xx ; 
*RoosEVELT, Autobiography \ Thayer, Life of Roosevelt and *Life of 
fohn Hay. 

For the Pupil : Barstow, Progress of a Utiited People, 70-77 ; Bruce, 
Romance of A/nericaii Expansion, chap, vii ; Griffis, Romance of Con- 
quest, chaps, xxvii-xxix; Hitchcock, Decisive Battles of America, 
chaps, xxi, xxii ; Miller, Philippine Folk-Lore Stories; Roosevelt, 
Rough Riders ; Spear, Our Navy in the War with Spain. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

(In connection with the problems of the present day it will often be 
necessary to give the pupil material, as under problem 6 below, which the 
teacher must either explain or abridge.) 

I. Why did we sympathize with the Cubans in their revolt against 
Spain? 2. Describe the first battle of the Spanish War. 3. Why was 
Santiago besieged ? 4. What did Cervera attempt to do ? 5. State the 
terms of the peace with Spain. 

[6. Write an essay on the Republic of Hawaii. (See Bassett, 771- 
774; Carpenter, America in Hawaii; Coolidge, The United States as a 
World Power, chap, xv.)] [7. Narrate the loss by Spain of her Amer- 
ican dominions. (Sections 220, 233, 234, 387, 390 ; see also Shepherd, 
The Hispanic Nations of the New World (Chronicles of America).)] 
[8. Describe our possessions outside continental United States. (See 
Bruce, The Romance of American Expansions, chaps, vii, viii ; Cool- 
idge, The United States as a World Power, chaps, vii, viii ; Mowry, 
Territorial Growth of the United States, chaps, viii-xi.)] 

g. What were the lessons of the Spanish War? 10. How are the 
Philippines governed? 11. What led us to intervene in Asiatic affairs? 
Explain the "open door." 12. Tell the story of the building of the 
Panama Canal. 13. Explain our contention with Japan over California. 
14. What were the "Roosevelt policies" in home affairs? 

[15. Write a brief essay on conservation of natural resources. (See 
Bogart, Economic History, chap, xxxviii ; Van Hise, The Conservation 
of the Natural Resources of the United States. )'\ 16. Name some 
noted instances of arbitration. What tribunal for international arbitra- 
tion was suggested by the Czar of Russia ? 17. What important financial 
measure was put through by President Wilson? 18. Why did we 
occupy Vera Cruz? 19. What agreement was reached with Carranza? 




BELGIANS DEFENDING THEIR COUNTRY 

SEVENTH DIMSION. HOW OUR COUNTRY 
BECAME THE CHAMPION OF DEMOCRACY 

CHAPTER XXIV 



THE WORLD WAR 

406. The World War. The war which began in August, 
1914, in which our country later played a glorious part, was 
probably the most terrible ever known. To understand it we 
must look back into the early history of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. Three questions must be answered : ( i) How did the 
nations that brought on the war become great armed powers ? 
(2) What was their purpose in forcing the whole world to 
go to war ? ( 3 ) What part did our country take in the war ? 

407. How the Great Armed Powers were Formed. To an- 
swer the first of these three questions we must go back to 
Napoleon (Chapter XHI). That great despot conquered 
Germany, Italy, Spain, nearly conquered Austria, and tried 
to conquer England and Russia. When at last he was driven 
from his throne and the conquered nations were set free 

428 



THE WORLD WAR 



429 



(181 5), most of them resolved to increase their military 
strength so as to render them free thereafter from the dread 
of another conquest. Prussia set the example by working 
out a plan which required every able-bodied man to serve 
part of his life in the army. Thus, in case of need, the whole 
male population could be turned into soldiers on short notice. 
This plan was rapidly fol- 
lowed by all the other 
European nations except 
England. 

408. The New German 
Power. The Prussian mili- 
tary system, with the king 
at its head, proved to be 
a great influence in favor 
of monarchy. When the 
German democrats in the 
Revolution of 1848 (sec- 
tion 288) attempted to re- 
duce the strength of the 
German princes, the mili- 
tary power of Prussia 
turned the scale against the democrats. During the next 
sixty years the power of the king of Prussia grew steadily 
more terrible in spite of the opposition of many Germans 
who still held democratic principles. When the new Ger- 
man Empire was formed (1871), in which were united all 
the German countries except Austria, Prussia was its most 
powerful state and the Prussian king became German 
emperor. 

409. First Policy of William II. At the opening of the 
nineteenth century William II was the German emperor. 
He had formed a plan for making himself master of the 
world, with power equal to that of Napoleon, and as a step 
in that direction he wanted to acquire a large extent of 




CARL SCHURZ 
One of the revolutionists of 1848 



430 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

country to be used for colonies. Germany was so densely 
populated that thousands of Germans emigrated every year 
to other lands. To keep these under the German flag the 
emperor looked about for lands to conquer. He turned his 
eyes upon South America. He knew that the United States 
would oppose him as we had opposed Napoleon III in Mexico 
(section 358). But the emperor's advisers were chiefly pro- 
fessional soldiers, who despised the Americans because we 
had no army worth speaking of. They assured him that 
while we might talk about our Monroe Doctrine, we would 
never fight for it. William II decided to take his chances in 
South America. For about ten years, ending in 1905, the 
Germans tried to force their way into South America. Dur- 
ing this period William II had another end in view. He was 
afraid that England might side with us in any dispute over 
South America. His other purpose was to persuade England 
not to stand by the United States in matters of foreign 
policy. 

410. Early Evidence of German Hostility to the United 
States. I. Samoa. Even before this time Germany showed 
hostility to the United States. It appeared in the Samoan 
Islands, which form a valuable coaling station between San 
Francisco and Australia. The islanders had offered their 
country to the United States (1877), which refused it, but 
gave them a promise of protection against invaders. The 
Germans, disregarding the American promise, attempted to 
establish their power over the islands (1886), but when a 
German ship prepared to shell a native village Lieutenant 
Leary, who commanded an American cruiser, anchored 
squarely in the line of fire. The German commander drew off. 
The German government negotiated. In course of time the 
islands were divided between the United States and Germany, 

2. Manila. During the Spanish War the German press 
took up the cause of Spain and bitterly denounced the 
United States, It is generally believed that the emperor 



THE WORLD WAR 431 

went so far as to ask the other European powers to intervene 
and that it was only England's flat refusal which prevented 
such action. Our ambassador at London, John Hay, wrote 
home that we could have the use of the British fleet '' for the 
asking." The contrasting attitudes of England and Ger- 
many were dramatically revealed at Manila, Shortly after 
Dewey's victory (section 388) a German admiral, Von Die- 
drichs, with a fleet more powerful than Dewey's, entered the 
harbor. When Dewey proclaimed a blockade Von Diedrichs 
ignored it and sent provisions to the Spaniards; thereupon 
Dewey sent an officer to inform the German that if he 
wanted a fight he could have it "right now." Von Die- 
drichs, with his stronger fleet, could not understand how 
Dewey ventured to defy him, except for one thing : a British 
admiral, Chichester, with three warships lay anchored near 
the Americans. "Perhaps," thought Von Diedrichs, "there 
is an understanding between Dewey and Chichester." He 
asked the latter what he would do if the Germans refused 
to comply with the demand of the Americans. Chichester 
replied that he had sealed orders, the contents of which 
were known only to himself and to Commodore Dewey. 
Von Diedrichs took the hint and gave no further assistance 
to the Spaniards. 

411. The Chinese Controversy; the Venezuela Crisis. It 
looked as if the United States and England were prepared 
to stand together against German aggression. The prompt 
acceptance by England of the "open door" in China (sec- 
tion 393) made Germany uneasy, but still the emperor pur- 
sued his South American policy. Enormous quantities of 
German capital were invested in Brazil and Argentina. To 
both countries went German emigrants in large numbers. 
But soon a crisis arose in South American affairs. Vene- 
zuela was deep in debt to Germany, England, and Italy. All 
three demanded payment. President Roosevelt intervened 
(1902) and persuaded Venezuela to agree to arbitration. 



432 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

England and Italy at once concurred, but Germany refused ; 
thereupon President Roosevelt took one of the most far- 
reaching steps in modern history. The whole American fleet, 
commanded by Admiral Dewey, was assembled at Porto Rico 
prepared for battle. An ultimatum was issued to Germany. 
Thus America gave notice that she was ready to fight for 
the Monroe Doctrine. Just how the emperor reasoned we 
do not know, but two things are plain — (i) during the few 
years since Manila, German feeling against England had 
become very bitter, and Germans were beginning to talk of 
England as their greatest enemy ; plainly, they thought 
England would support the United States ; ( 2 ) the emperor 
accepted the American terms, and the American battle fleet 
remained at Porto Rico (1903). 

412. The Pretext for War. During the next ten years 
William II attempted to build up a great power in the East. 
Together with the Austrian emperor, who was his ally, he 
planned to get control of the little Balkan states, — Bulgaria, 
Serbia, Montenegro, — of Turkey, and of all southwestern 
Asia.^ In 191 2 the Balkan states, together with Greece, united 
in a war against Turkey which was brilliantly successful. It 
seemed that a new and strong confederation was to arise in 
southeastern Europe. This was the last thing either Ger- 
many or Austria wanted. Both breathed more freely when 
the victorious confederates fell to quarreling among them- 
selves and their plan of a southeastern confederacy collapsed. 
The Central Empires — Germany and Austria — now de- 
cided that it was time for them to get the Balkan states 
into their own hands, and a young Serbian unfortunately 
gave them the pretext for beginning war. Already Austria 
had forced a considerable number of Serbs to live under 
her rule. They longed for independence and for reunion 
with the little kingdom of free Serbia. In the summer 

^At this time Russia, England, and France were united in a defensive 
alliance called the Entente Cordiale. 



THE WORLD WAR 



433 



of 1 914, while the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to 
the Austrian throne, was on a visit to the httle town of 
Sarajevo, in the southern part of the empire, he and his 
wife were shot (June 28) and killed by an Austrian Serb, 
a member of a secret society that was working for independ- 
ence. Austria professed to believe that the Serbian kingdom 




RUSSIAN TROOPS IN THE CITY OF PETROGRAD ON THE WAY TO THE FRONT 

had inspired the assassination. She sent an ultimatum to 
Serbia making demands that if accepted would reduce Serbia 
to the position of an Austrian vassal (July 23). Only forty- 
eight hours were allowed for a reply. Though Serbia, real- 
izing her helplessness, consented to yield almost everything 
demanded, Austria pronounced the reply unsatisfactory and 
declared war (July 28). 

The Serbians are members of the Slavic race, to which the 
Russians also belong, Serbia appealed to her ^'big brother," 
the Russian emperor, for protection. It was now plain that 
Austria was determined to have war, and everyone knew that 
Austria and Germany acted together in all their foreign 



434 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

affairs. Russia, France, and England all made earnest efforts 
to preserve peace, although indicating that they could not 
stand by and let Austria conquer Serbia. The Czar began 
mobilizing his army, but at the same time he asked the 
German emperor to induce Austria to submit the Serbian 
matter to the Hague Tribunal for arbitration (July 29). 
Instead of acting on this proposal, which would have pre- 
vented war, William II sent Russia a bullying demand that 
all war preparations cease within twelve hours (July 31). 
As Russia ignored the demand, Germany declared war 
against Russia (August i). Two days later she declared 
war against France, which was in alliance with Russia. This 
fateful step was not taken without opposition from liberal 
Germans who still retained the ideals of 1848. The op- 
ponents of war were led by a noble democrat, Karl Lieb- 
knecht, who, with a number of others, was at once thrown 
into prison. 

413. The Violation of Belgium. The course which was 
now taken by the German government astounded and horri- 
fied the world. The frontier between France and Germany 
was well fortified. A direct attack on France would have 
to proceed slowly. For the sake of speed the Germans 
instantly demanded of Belgium permission to move their 
armies across Belgian soil. But the neutrality of Belgium 
was guaranteed by international agreement ; Germany had 
herself signed a treaty promising never to invade Belgium. 
Both the Belgian and British governments instantly pro- 
tested ; the only reply was the cynical remark of the German 
prime minister that the treaty was ''a scrap of paper." The 
same day (August 4) huge German armies burst into Bel- 
gium, and England thereupon declared war upon Germany. 

414. Belgium checks the Germans. If the Germans could 
have crossed Belgium unopposed they might have conquered 
France, for the French armies were not ready for battle. 
England's available army was small, and though it was 



THE WORLD WAR 



435 



hurried to France the combined French and EngHsh armies 
were not at first strong enough to make a stand. Had 
Belgium surrendered they would have been destroyed. But 
Belgium did not surrender. ''A country which defends 
itself," said King Albert, "commands the respect of all; 
that country cannot perish." Little as she was, Belgium rose 
in arms as Germany rushed upon her. During nineteen days 




HOWITZERS POUNDING THE GERMAN LINES 



(August 4-23) the Belgians — at first alone, then with the 
aid of French and British reenforcements — kept the Ger- 
mans out of France. 

It was this delay that saved France and made possible the 
eventual defeat of Germany. But Belgium paid an awful 
price for her courage. Knowing how disastrous to their plan 
(section 413) this delay might be, the Germans vented their 
rage against the Belgians with terrible cruelty. Beautiful 
cities were destroyed ; noncombatants were massacred — 
not only men too old to fight, but defenseless women and 
little children ; the horrible story reads like a page from the 
history of the Dark Ages. 

415, The First Battle of the Marne. When the Germans 
crossed the French frontier only part of the Anglo-French 
force had arrived on the scene of battle. The defenders had 



436 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to fall back toward Paris, while both the British and French 
governments hurried every available man to their assistance. 
The thirteen days of this great retreat from August 24 to 
September 5 formed a continuous, desperate battle. 

During the retreat the French government was removed 
from Paris to Bordeaux. A great French general, Joffre, 




PIECES OF HEAVY ARTILLERY CAPTURED FROM THE GERMANS 

was placed in command of the French armies. On Sep- 
tember 6, when the Germans were but fifteen miles from 
Paris, the Anglo-French army turned upon them and began 
a terrific battle along the course of the River Marne. Four 
days later (September 10) this crucial battle closed with a 
German retreat. The plan of a swift conquest of France 
was no longer possible. Instead, there now began a long, 
slow struggle, during which the soil of northeastern France 
was contested inch by inch. 

416. The Two Periods of the War. From the American 
point of view the war has two periods : the first extends 
from August 4, 1914, to April 6, 191 7 — from the violation 
of Belgium to the declaration of war against Germany 



THE WORLD WAR 437 

by the United States ; the second period embraces seven- 
teen months, April 6, 191 7, to November 11, 1918, during 
which our country was in certain respects the most im- 
portant member of the group of powers associated against 
Germany. 

417. The Double Story of the First Period of the War. 
Throughout the first period two distinct themes must be 
borne in mind : ( i ) there is the terrible story of the actual 
fighting; (2) there is the equally important story of the 
complications which grew out of the German policy and 
of their effect on the United States. 

418. Later Military History of the First Period. During 
two and a half years there was ''trench warfare" all along 
the Western Front; that is to say, both sides constructed 
an enormous system of fortifications extending from Switzer- 
land across northern France and western Belgium to the 
North Sea. Repeatedly one side or the other attempted to 
break through the enemy's line. A famous attack by the 
British was the battle of Neuve-Chapelle in March, 191 5. 
Slight gains were made, which, however, were offset by 
German gains the next month in the terrible battle of Ypres. 
The greatest German attack was directed against Verdun 
and was sustained during five months of terrific fighting 
(February-July, 191 6). At last General Petain repulsed 
the Germans. The battle of the Somme was a combined 
attack by the British under Sir Douglas Haig and the French 
under General Foch, which began in July and closed in 
November, 1916. It ''nibbled" a small area held before 
by the Germans under Field Marshal von Hindenburg, but 
failed to break their line — merely pushed it back a few 
miles. At the opening of 191 7, after all these gigantic bat- 
tles, the combatants in the West stood about where they 
were at the close of 1914. 

Meanwhile war raged in every quarter of the globe. It is 
estimated that in the course of this greatest of wars forty 



438 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

million men took up arms. Blood was shed with sickening 
profusion along the Eastern Front (in Poland, Russia, and 
Austria; in southeastern Europe; in Turkey), in South 
Africa, even in distant China. The Allies were joined by 
Japan (August 23, 1914) and by Italy (May 23, 1915), 
while Germany was joined by Turkey (November 3, 19 14) 
and by Bulgaria (October 4, 1915). Rumania, after enter- 
ing the war on the side of the Allies (August 27, 1916), was 
quickly conquered by the Germans (December, 1916- 
January, 191 7 ). On the other hand, Germany lost her colo- 
nies — her Chinese colony, Kiaochow, being taken by Japan, 
while her African colonies were conquered by British forces 
commanded by the noted South African leaders, General 
Smuts and General Botha. 

One of the grandest displays of courage in modern war 
was the attempt of the British forces, chiefly Australians, to 
seize the peninsula of Gallipoli (1915) preparatory to an 
attack on Constantinople. The attempt failed because it 
was not properly supported, but it made the word 
"Anzacs,"^ by which the Australians were known, another 
name for heroism. 

Our neighbors the Canadians also greatly distinguished 
themselves. Few nations sent a larger proportion of their 
men to the battle lines, and none did more desperate fight- 
ing. The name of Vimy Ridge became famous throughout 
the world because of the terrible slaughter endured by the 
Canadians in taking possession of it. 

At sea the German cruisers and battleships were either 
destroyed or driven into ports of refuge during 1914 and 
191 5. In May, 191 6, the remaining battleships of Germany 
left their refuge at Kiel and engaged the main British fleet 
in the battle of Jutland. Though not a decisive victory for 
the British, the battle ended in the retreat of the Ger- 
mans to Kiel. They did not venture forth again until they 

' From the initials of the terra "Australian-New Zealand Army Corps." 



THE WORLD WAR 



439 



came out from their harbor to surrender themselves to the 
victorious Allies at the end of the war (see section 447). 

In one respect the Germans were startlingly successful dur- 
ing the first period of the war. They proved that the sub- 
marine was a practical weapon. Before the war was a month 
old three British cruisers were torpedoed by submarines. 
The Germans then undertook 
to destroy the commerce of 
their enemies by means of 
" undersea " boats. It was this 
submarine warfare more than 
any other one thing that 
brought the United States into 
the war. 

Let us now see how these ter- 
rible events of the first period 
affected our own country. 

419. The United States and 
Belgium. The first effect of 
the war on America was an 
outburst of sympathy for Bel- 
gium. Subscriptions were at 
once opened to provide food for the starving victims of the 
invasion. There was utmost need for such aid, because the 
invaders seized all the food they could lay hands on and 
left the inhabitants to the mercy of foreign sympathizers. 
Two able men — Mr, Brand Whitlock, our minister to Bel- 
gium, and Mr. Herbert C. Hoover, who was appointed to 
distribute relief — were mainly instrumental in saving 
Belgium from famine. 

420, American Neutrality, 1914-1917. President Wilson in 
1914 hoped to keep us out of the war. He issued a proc- 
lamation of neutrality,^ but in attempting to put neutrality 
into practice he became engaged in disputes with Germany 

1 Compare the situation of Washington (sections 199, 200). 




IS) Underwood & Underwood 
HERBERT HOOVER 



440 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



that finally made it impossible for us to continue neutral. 
Chief among these disputes were the munitions issue and 
the question of the rights of neutrals on the high seas. 

421. The Munitions Issue. The right to buy munitions 
of war in other countries is a matter of vital importance to 

all nations that are averse to 
maintaining large armies. We 
have seen that both North and 
South in 1 86 1 armed them- 
selves by purchase in Europe 
(section 314). It did not oc- 
cur to either side to question 
the right of the other to do 
so. In 1 9 14, when both Eng- 
land and France needed a vast 
supply of extra munitions, 
American factories made haste 
to supply their needs. The 
United States government had 
no right to prevent them. Nev- 
ertheless Germany violently 
protested. Austria sent a 
formal demand that our gov- 
ernment suppress the international munitions trade. The 
demand was refused (1915), 

422. Rights of Neutrals on the High Seas. The British 
navy had established a blockade (section 316) of German 
ports. Germany saw that this blockade was probably her 
greatest danger and determined to use the submarine as her 
weapon to counteract it. She proclaimed a '^submarine block- 
ade" of the British Isles (February 4, 1915). To this we 
could not have objected had it not been for three things 
which Germany now proceeded to do : ( i ) She refused to 
observe an established principle of international law, accord- 
ing to which, though a ship attempting to "run a blockade" 




CLARA BARTON 

Miss Barton founded the Society 

of tlie Red Cross to reduce the 

horrors of war 



THE WORLD WAR 



441 



■Tm 






may be seized with its contents, the crew and passengers 
must be taken off and conveyed to a place of safety. Her 
submarines sank ships where they found them, often drown- 
ing the crews and passengers. (2) By refusing to Uve up 
to international law in this respect she compelled every 
American traveling on a 
British ship to take his life 
in his hand. (3) She tor- 
pedoed hospital ships as 
well as merchant ships — 
an act of inhumanity that 
incensed the people of the 
United States. 

President Wilson was 
prompt to warn Germany 
that this country would not 
tolerate a violation of our 
rights under international 
law. He informed the Ger- 
man government that he 
would hold it to a ^'strict 
accountability" if American 
lives were lost through the 
activities of her submarines 
(February 10, 1915). 

In bold defiance of the 
United States Germany committed one of the cruelest actions 
of the war. On May 7, 191 5, the great liner Lusitania, 
one of the largest ships upon the seas, was approaching 
Ireland from New York. Suddenly a German submarine 
rose from the depths of the ocean and without warning at- 
tacked the Lusitania with torpedoes. The liner sank, drown- 
ing some twelve hundred people, among them one hundred 
and twenty-four Americans. A great rage took posses- 
sion of the American people. In spite of the President's 




AN ALLIED MERCHANTMAN AT THE 

MOMENT OF ITS BEING SUNK BY 

A GERMAN SUBMARINE 



442 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

demand for redress, Germany persisted in arguing the mat- 
ter and evaded making an answer. Nearly a year passed. 
Then occurred the sinking of the British steamer Sussex, on 
which two Americans lost their lives (March 24, 1916). 
President Wilson now made a peremptory demand for re- 
dress (April 18, 1 91 6), and Germany appeared to yield 
(May 4, 191 6), giving a promise that merchant ships would 
not be sunk without making provision for the safety of 
the passengers. 

423. The Change of Sentiment in the United States. By 
this time there was very deep indignation in America against 
the imperial German government. At the opening of the war 
most Americans had thought that it was our duty to stand 
neutral while the European powers fought out their terrible 
quarrel among themselves. But during the two years 191 5 
and 1 91 6 the Americans made several discoveries, (i) They 
began to read the history of the imperial German govern- 
ment and discovered that it had long been planning a world 
war. This was made shockingly plain by the wTitings of 
General von Bernhardi, which were translated, published in 
cheap form, and read from one end of America to the other. 
Long before the war broke out Bernhardi had told his coun- 
trymen just how it should be fought and urged them to 
provoke war at the first opportunity. ( 2 ) A great num- 
ber of new writings dealt with both the past and the 
present of Germany. Americans awoke to the fact that 
for twenty years Germany had been working against 
the United States. They were thrilled and enraged by 
the eloquent portrayal in many brilliant books of the 
harshness of the Germans in conquered countries. (3) 
The unreasonable demands made on our government by the 
German government (sections 421, 422) and its slaughter 
of our citizens (section 422) had created in most American 
hearts a deep, fierce desire for vengeance. (4) Practically 
everyone was convinced - that the German ambassador had 



THE WORLD WAR 443 

filled our country with spies and that German money was 
being used to stir up trouble in America/ (5) The con- 
viction was gaining that Germany was in truth a despotic 
colossus bent on destroying free government throughout the 
world. 

It would take but one more insult to bring the Americans 
furioi^sly into battle, convinced that they were the last hope 
of democracy. 

424. Election of 1916; Germany's Plan. While the nation 
was settling into this grim humor, the election of 191 6 gave 
President W^ilson a second term in the White House. Mean- 
while Germany had formed a daring and unscrupulous new 
plan. Having concluded that she could not beat the Allies 
in battle, she resolved to cut off their supplies by sinking 
every ship that brought them food or munitions under any 
flag. On January 31, 191 7, the German ambassador, Count 
von Bernstorff, informed President Wilson that ^'unre- 
stricted" submarine warfare in a large area including the 
coast of France and England would begin the next day. 
This meant that the lives of still more Americans would 
be sacrificed at sea. The President's answer was the dis- 
missal of Count von Bernstorff and the recall of the Ameri- 
can ambassador, James W. Gerard, from Berlin. 

The new temper of the Americans was now made mani- 
fest. The President's action was applauded in every corner 
of the country. All the governors of the states telegraphed 
him their assurances of support. The Senate indorsed his 
action by a vote of 78 to 5. A significant feature of the 
popular demonstration was the unhesitating loyalty of Amer- 
icans of German descent. The German-American news- 
papers, almost without exception, declared their readiness to 
stand by the President whatever happened. 

1 There were explosions in munition factories, killing hundreds of American 
workmen, that were thought to be due to German spies. Several officials 
were known to have been concerned in improper practices and had been 
sent back to Germany or Austria by the President, 



444 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

While the country was at fever heat, expecting daily to 
hear of the sinking of American ships, the President made 
an astounding revelation. He published a dispatch which 
had come into the possession of the American Secret Service 
in Mexico. It was signed by Dr. Zimmerman of the German 
government and proposed to the Mexican government joint 




r. s. official 
FLOCK OF UNITED STATES SUBMARINES AT A BASE ON THE IRISH COAST 
DURING THE WORLD WAR 

war on the United States — Mexico to receive New Mexico, 
Texas, and Arizona as her share of the spoil. It was dated 
January 19, nearly two weeks earlier than the announce- 
ment of the submarine war. 

425. The Sinking of the American Ships; War Declared. 
Nothing could now prevent the Americans from making the 
appeal to arms, but if anything more had been needed to 
justify our indignation the events of the next few weeks 
would have been sufficient. Germany sank ships of all sorts 
— ships flying belligerent flags and ships flying neutral 
flags; merchant ships; hospital ships; even relief ships 



THE WORLD WAR 445 

carrying food to the starving Belgians. Among these were 
several under the flag of the United States. Though in 
some cases the crews escaped in their boats, a number of 
American sailors lost their lives. On April 2 the President 
appeared before Congress/ and after recounting the false- 
ness of the German government and the wrongs we had 
suffered at its hands, he used these memorable words : 

The world must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must 
be planted upon the tested foundations of political liberty. We 
have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquests, no domin- 
ion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensa- 
tion for the sacrifices we shall freely make. We are but one of the 
champions of the rights of mankind. We shall be satisfied when 
those rights have been made as secure as the faith and the freedom 
of nations can make them. 

On April 6, 191 7, Congress declared war against the 
German Empire. 

426, Our Five Reasons for going to War. As this declara- 
tion of war was in some respects the most eventful action 
ever taken by the Congress of the United States, no Ameri- 
can should forget our five reasons for making this great 
decision. 

1. Because Germany had killed our countrymen while 
they were exercising their rights under international law 
(section 422). 

2. Because Germany had sunk ships flying the American 
flag (section 425). 

3. Because we were deeply indignant over the German 
inhumanity toward Belgium and other conquered countries 
(section 414). 

4. Because we had come to see that Germany aimed at 
world dominion, which meant, eventually, the abolition of 

^ Congress had adjourned soon after the Senate voted its indorsement of 
the President's policy (section 424). The President called it together in a 
special session to consider declaring war. 



446 SCHOOL HISTOR.Y OF THE UNITED STATES 

the Monroe Doctrine and our own decline into the position 
of a German vassal (sections 233, 332, 410, 411). 

5. Because Germany stood for a revival of despotic 
monarchy, and her victory would mean the overthrow of 
democracy throughout the world (sections 288, 408, 409). 

SUMMARY 

The nineteenth century witnessed in Europe two far-reaching 
changes : the arming of all the continental nations and the gather- 
ing of the German states outside Austria into one empire, hostile 
to democracy. William II aimed at building up a great colonial 
German dominion. South America seemed to offer a field for 
German colonization. To do this the United States and the Monroe 
Doctrine would have to be defied. A crisis was reached in 1904 
over a Venezuelan dispute, when President Roosevelt mobilized 
the American fleet and sen'ed an ultimatum upon Germany. 
Germany gave up her attempt to colonize South America and 
turned toward the East. Part of the program of Germany 
and her ally, Austria, was the conquest of the Balkan states. A 
pretext for war was found in the assassination of the heir to the 
Austrian throne by a Serbian. Austria demanded humiliating 
promises from Serbia, and when they were given not exactly as 
she demanded she declared war. Within a few days the war had 
also involved Germany, Russia, France, Belgium, and England. 

The Germans, checked in their rush through Belgium toward 
Paris, were met and defeated by Anglo-French armies in the first 
battle of the Marne. The first period of the war extended to 
April 6, 191 7. During this period the United States did not 
participate, but attempted to stand neutral. Germany vainly 
tried to induce us to defy international law and forbid our munition 
makers to sell to belligerents. In spite of treaty obligations Ger- 
many, defying international law, destroyed the lives of neutrals 
by sinking merchant ships without saving their passengers. This 
was done by means of submarines. President Wilson warned 
Germany that if American lives were lost she would be held to 
strict accountability. Nevertheless Germany sank the Liisitauia 
with many Americans on board. After long discussion between 



THE WORLD WAR 447 

the two governments President Wilson made a peremptory de- 
mand, and Germany promised to comply with international law. 
Subsequently Germany decided to resume ''unrestricted submarine 
warfare." This meant that more of our citizens would be killed. 
President Wilson at once dismissed the German ambassador and 
recalled our ambassador from Berlin. A few days later the 
American government published an intercepted dispatch of the 
German government proposing the dismemberment of the United 
States. Shortly afterwards German submarines began sinking 
American ships. Congress declared war on the imperial German 
government on April 6, 191 7. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

For the Teacher: Cheradame, The Pan-German Plot l/ntnasked; 
Davis and Others, *The Roots of the I far; Fish, The Path of Empire 
(Chronicles of America) ; Foerster, Norman, and Pierson (Eds.), Attieri- 
can Ideals; Gibbs, The Way to Victory; *Harding, Topical Outline 
of the War; Hart and Lovejoy, Hatidbook of the War; Hayes, A 
Brief History of the Great Jfi^r (chaps, i-x) and Modern Europe (H); 
Hazen, Modern European ///^■/tf;j (chap, xxxviii) and Europe since iSi^; 
*McK\'^i.^Y, Collected Materials for the Study of the War; Robinson and 
West, The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson ; Roosevelt, Fear God and 
take your Own Part; *Seymour, Woodrow Wilson and the Great War 
(Chronicles of America); *?)\uo'tiV)S, History of the Great ll'ar; Stoddard 
and Frank, The Stakes of the War; Thayer, Life offohn Hay; The 
University of Chicago war papers : The Threat of German World Politics ; 
Americans a7id the World Crisis; Democracy the Basis of a World- 
Order; Sixteen Causes of War; Usher, Pan-Germanism. During the 
war the government issued several series of pamphlets, many of which 
are very valuable ; for example. The War Message and Facts behind It 
(Committee on Public Information, No. i); American atid Allied Ideals 
(War Information Series, No. 12); Paxson, Corwin, and Harding, 
* War Cyclopcedia (Red, White, and Blue Series) ; War, Labor, and Peace 
(Red, White, and Blue Series). With this chapter periodical publications 
begin to be of great assistance. The American Year Book and the Inter- 
national Year Book, both issued annually, give condensed accounts of the 
events of each year. *The World Almanac, costing only 50 cents, contains 
the statistics of the year, with an excellent, brief calendar of important 
events. \''ery useful magazines for the history teacher are Current History, 
the Literary Digest^ the World''s Work, the Review of Reviews, the 



448 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Outlook, the Iiuiepeiuient, Current Opinion, all of which contain accounts 
of the leading events of each year in chronological order. 

For the Pupil : Almost all the government pamphlets, especially The 
War Message and Facts behind It ; the great quantity of excellent illus- 
trations of the war found in the Century Magazine, the Ladies'' Home 
Journal, the Literary Digest, the World's Work, the Review of Reviews, 
and in the weekly supplements of all the great daily newspapers, especially 
those of New York and Philadelphia — the Midweek Pictorial, issued by 
the A'e7u York Times, is especially full. Among a host of publications 
several are noteworthy ; for example, Channing (Ed.), Letters of Edmond 
GetiH; Davis and Others, The Roots of the War; March, A History 
of the World War; Masefield, Gallipoli; McKixlev, Coulo.mb, and 
Gersox, School Histoiy of the Great War; Powell (Ed.), The Spirit of 
Democracy ; Thompson and Bigwood, Lest We Fotget; Turkixgtox, 
My Country, chaps, xix-xx; Van Dyke, Fighting for Peace. McKlxley, 
Coulomb, and Gerson have a chronology of the war, 1 81-189. Two 
high-school histories give useful bibliographies: Muzzey, An American 
History, 536-537; Stephexson, An American History, supplement, 
xlv-xlvii. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. State the three questions that must be answered in connection 
with the World War (section 406). [2. Explain the plan that was 
worked out by Prussia for turning the whole nation into an army. How 
would your life change if such a plan were adopted by the United 
States ? Have you heard of any other schemes of preparedness besides 
the Prussian ? How do the schemes you know of differ from the 
Prussian plan ?] 

3. Describe the first clash between Germany and the United States. 
4. What was the attitude of William II toward America during the 
Spanish War? 5. How did Roosevelt compel William II to respect the 
Monroe Doctrine? [6. Write an essay on what might have happened if 
we had abandoned the Monroe Doctrine in 1904. Would there have 
been a world war if the emperor had been allowed to colonize South 
America ? Describe the world as you think it would be today if Roose- 
velt had yielded to William II. (See Davis, Roots oj the War; 
Robinson, Medieval and Modern Times, 599-606, 612-635.)] 

7. Why did Austria pick a quarrel with Serbia ? 8. How did Russia 
try to prevent a war? [9. Tell briefly how the World War began. (See 
Bassett, Our War with Germany, chap, i ; Hayes, Brief History, chap, 
ii ; Hazen, Modern European History, chap, xxxviii ; Robinson, Medie- 
val and Modern Times, chap, xxxv.)] 10. What attempts were made 
in Germany to keep the emperor from going to war ? 



THE WORLD WAR 



449 



[ii. Write an essay on the Heroism of Belgium. (See Hayes, Brief 
History, chap, ii ; Turkington, My Country, 303-312; Whitlock, Bel- 
gium under the German Heel.)] 12. What event divides the war into 
two main periods? [13. Narrate briefly the military events of the first 
period. (See Gibbs, The Way to Victory (I) and The Menace ; Hayes, 
Brief History, chaps, iii-ix ; Hazen, Modern European History, 619- 
646.)] [14. Compare President Wilson's action in proclaiming neutral- 
ity with that of Washington. What is neutrality ? (See sections 200, 
420 ; also Ogg, National Progress, chaps, xiv, xv, xvii, xxi ; Robinson 
and West, The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson ; Rogers, America's 
Case against Germany.)] 

[15. Explain why nations should have the right to buy munitions 
abroad. Show how Americans profited by this right in the past. Why 
and how in the World War did Austria try to induce us to contradict 
our own history? (See sections 314, 421.)] 16. How did Germany 
interfere with the exercise of the rights of Americans who wished to 
travel on British ships? Following the note on "strict accountability" 
what dealings were there between President Wilson and the imperial 
government ? What German order brought the dispute to a close early 
in 191 7? (See Seymour, Woodrow Wilson and the Great War.) 

17. How did the imperial navy attack us on March, 191 7 ? 18. State 
our five reasons for declaring war against Germany. [19. Write an essay 
on why we entered the World War. (See Hayes, Brief History, chap. 
X ; How the War came to America (Committee on Pubhc Information) ; 
Seymour, Woodrow Wilson and the Great War and The War Message 
and Facts behind it (Committee on Public Information) ; Hart and 
Lovejoy, Handbook of the War, chap, ii.)] 



gKiQ:^.;:!:fi:iK2i;zKiomanana^gtegio^ 








^sede^r 



sai«i*t»i«t«i«t»t#iwi«i»i#t»i«i*i*is 



A CONVOY OF TROOP SHIPS FROM THE UNITED STATES TO FRANCE 



CHAPTER XXV 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 

427. The National Army. When we entered the war all our 
military forces, both the regular army and the militia, num- 
bered only 2 02,000 men. The first duty of Congress was to 
raise an immense army. In May, 191 7, a law was passed 
establishing the "selective draft." Under this law (June 5, 
191 7) 10,000,000 men between the ages of twenty-one and 
thirty-one were enrolled in the national army. Numbers 
were attached to the names and then drawn by lot. Later 
men were "called to the colors" in the order in which their 
numbers were drawn. The next year Congress declared sub- 
ject to military duty all men between eighteen and forty- 
five. A second enrollment (September 12, 191 8) increased 
the army by 13,000,000. 

Of course it was not intended to put all these 23,000,000 
men into the field unless we were forced to do so. To call 
them out gradually four thousand "draft boards" were ap- 
pointed. As the War Department called for soldiers, each 

draft board summoned before it a number of the enrolled 

450 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 



451 



men of its vicinity and had them examined by physicians. 
If they were perfectly healthy and there was no other reason 
for excusing them, they were sent to ^' the colors." However, 
some healthy men were dismissed by the boards because the 
draft laws exempted those who had certain obligations ; for 
example, if a drafted man was 
the only son of a widow who 
had no other means of sup- 
port he was excused from 
service. In spite of all ex- 
emptions made by the draft 
boards, the new army grew 
with immense rapidity/ 

As fast as the recruits could 
be trained they were sent 
abroad for active service. 
Some were sent far afield, 
even to eastern Siberia, where 
German sympathizers were 
fighting the Russians ; ^ some, 
for the same reason, were sent 
to Archangel in northern Rus- 
sia ; some went to Italy, where 
the Austrians made . dangerous advances in 191 8; but the 
great bulk went to France. June 26, 191 7, is a memorable 
day in American history, for on that day our soldiers began 
arriving in France. Never before had American soldiers set 
foot on the continent of Europe as belligerents. 

At first our men went across at the rate of about 50,000 a 
month, but in the spring of 191 8 there was need for rapid 
reenforcement of the allied lines (see section 436). We had 

^Not all our soldiers were drafted. When the war began we had our 
small regular army and the militia, called the National Guard. These men 
did splendid service throughout the war. 

2 See section 43s. The Bolsheviki were waging war on loyal Russians 
who stood by the Allies. 




U. b. omcial 
AN AMERICAN SOLDIER WITH 
FULL EQUIPMENT 



452 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



not ships enough to move our army more rapidly, and Eng- 
land came to our aid. With the help of British ships we 
were able to send over 250,000 men a month. July 4, 19 18, 
the government announced that our "first million" was on 
French soil. When the war closed we had 2,000,000 men in 

foreign service, all of them at 
least three thousand miles from 
home. This was far the most 
stupendous military achieve- 
ment in American history. 

428. The Greater Navy: 
Battle of the Atlantic. The 
navy, when w^e entered the 
war, included 82,000 men. 
This number was rapidly in- 
creased to 500,000. Though 
warships cannot be built in a 
hurry, numbers of merchant 
ships were rapidly adapted for 
naval use. Among these were 
many German vessels which 
had sought refuge in American 
ports in the early days of the war. The huge liner Vatcrland, 
renamed the Leviathan, did good service as a transport, carry- 
ing 12,000 men every trip. A squadron of battleships under 
Admiral Hugh Rodman was sent to join the ''grand fleet" of 
the Allies in the North Sea (December, 1917). 

To beat off the German submarines that were aiming to 
keep American troop ships from reaching Europe, a great 
fleet of destroyers was needed. During the greater part of 
1 91 7 American destroyers under command of Admiral W. S. 
Sims, in cooperation with England's destroyers, hunted down 
the German submarines and sank them wherever found. At 
the end of 191 7 the Anglo-American fleet had destroyed so 
many submarines that the Atlantic was comparatively safe 




ADMIRAL HUGH RODMAN 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 453 

for our transports/ Except for this great victory the Amer- 
ican millions could not have gone to France in 191 8 and 
Germany might have won the war (section 427). 

429. Training our Men. At home, during our first year, 
we accomplished three great tasks : ( i ) we trained our 







^* 


3 








1 




mm^ 




ttViU.iltlDt£aUHt 


mmm^ 


!«■«#. 


<■. 


m 



AMERICAN SOLDIERS PASSING IN REVIEW 

enormous army; (2) we raised money for the maintenance 
of the war; (3) we reorganized our industries for war 
purposes. 

As soon as a recruit was accepted by a draft board he was 
sent to a camp of instruction. Many of these camps, scat- 
tered over the country, sprang up as suddenly as if at the 
command of a wizard. They were not the old-style tented 
camps, of which everyone has read. Each was a temporary 
city with streets, houses, hospitals, and administrative build- 
ings. Some had populations of from forty to fifty thousand 
men. At these camps the recruit was taught how to shoot, 
how to drill — everything in fact that could be learned with- 
out actually going under fire. For the later training which 

^This was made possible by a new sort of bomb, the depth charge, which 
could be fired into the sea and would explode with great force under water. 



454 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




KENC IT 
AGAIN 



BUY 

U.S.GOVT 
a BONDS 



only the battlefield can give our government made an ar- 
rangement with France. There also large American camps 
were built. Our soldiers assembled at these camps were to 
be sent into action, at first for short periods, in close asso- 
ciation with French or British troops. Early in 1918 every 

French and every British 
army on the Western Front 
had its American members 
who were finishing their 
military education under its 
guidance. 

430. Raising Money for the 
War. The war cost us about 
$30,000,000,000, or S300 for 
every man, Avoman, and child 
in the United States. The 
money was raised in four 
ways : 

I. Taxes. War taxes — 
chiefly the income tax^ and 
the excess-profits tax — were 
designed to tax people more 
and more heavily in propor- 
tion to their wealth. Amarried 
man with an income of $2000 
paid no income tax; a man 
with an income of $5000 paid a small percentage by way of 
tax. The percentage grew with the income until at the top of 
the scale a multimillionaire gave the government six tenths 
of his income. 

By the excess profits law the government took a consid- 
erable part of the earnings of business houses which had 

1 Until recently Congress did not have the right to tax incomes except 
under inconvenient restrictions. In 1913 the Sixteenth Amendment, giving 
it this right unconditionally, was added to the Constitutic«i. 





Third Liberty Loan 



ONE OF THE MANY POSTERS USED 
DURING THE WAR TO STIMULATE 
THE PURCHASE OF LIBERTY BONDS 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 455 

much larger profits than they had before the war. Taxes 
were also paid on liquors, cigars, theater tickets, club dues, 
notes, deeds, mortgages, freight and express shipments, tele- 
grams, and automobiles. The postal rate for an ordinary 
letter was raised from two cents to three, 

2. Loans. Four times the government asked the nation to 
contribute to liberty loans. Sixteen billions were subscribed 
in response to these appeals. A fifth, the Victory Loan 
(April, 1919) raised four and a half billions. Other loans 
were made through the purchase of War Savings Stamps. 
The smallest Thrift Stamp had a value of twenty-five 
cents. They were to be kept for five years and then pre- 
sented to the government, which promised to buy them back 
with interest. In 191 8 two billions were paid into the United 
States Treasury in return for War Savings Stamps. 

3. Contributions. A considerable part of the war cost was 
paid by volunteer individuals or organizations that made or 
purchased army supplies and presented them to the govern- 
ment. Everywhere local societies were formed for the pur- 
pose of raising funds or making army clothes or for meeting 
the expenses of army hospitals. Women knitted socks and 
sweaters for the army. They carried their knitting around 
with them and worked at it in every odd minute. There was 
a time when you could not go into a street car without seeing 
a row of women busy with their long steel needles. The 
Red Cross Society formed chapters in every town and vil- 
lage. These chapters kept their members at work making 
surgical dressings and preparing countless articles for the 
army medical service. A Junior Red Cross was formed 
which was composed altogether of school children. 

4. Unpaid Service. Large sums were saved to the govern- 
ment because an incalculable amount of service was given 
free. Many of the ablest men and women in the country 
became, temporarily, government workers with salaries of 
only one dollar a year. Such were Charles M. Schwab, 



456 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

chairman of the Shipping Board (section 431); Herbert C. 
Hoover, Food Administrator (section 432); and many more. 
Cooperating with these were the heads of great corporations 
and of the great labor organizations, conspicuously repre- 
sented by Samuel Gompers, president of the American 
Federation of Labor.' 

431. Reorganization of Industry. How to equip our army 
on short notice was one of our most difficult problems. 




AN ADVANCING AMERICAN TANK CROSSING A DITCH 

The tank, which was based on the principle of the tractor,- was one of the 
most important inventions of the war 

Fortunately many American factories had adapted them- 
selves to the production of munitions and had worked at 
high speed supplying England and France during the early 
part of the war (section 421). Meanwhile England and 
France had built new factories of their own ; therefore the 
output of our factories could now be used by our own army 

1 Disputes with regard to employment were settled by the War Labor 
Board, which arbitrated over a thousand cases involving half a million 
workmen. 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 



457 



without making difficulties for our allies. Nevertheless we 
were unable to supply our artillery with cannon, and even 
when the war closed 
we were using guns 
obtained from the 
French. For fifteen 
months we had to rely 
upon the French and 
the British for much 
of our aircraft. The 
use of aircraft in the 
World War was as 
novel and important 
a feature as the use of 
submarines. Aircraft 
were the eyes of the 
armies. In 191 7 we 
had no factories for 
the production of air- 
craft, but we over- 
came this difficulty. 
First, there was a con- 
ference of mechanical 
engineers representing 
all the most successful 
makers of automo- 
biles. They designed 
a new engine, named 
the Liberty Motor. 
Five leading automo- 
bile factories were 
asked to build Liberty Motors. The typewriter and cash- 
register factories were asked to make nuts, bolts, and 
various other small but highly important parts that were 
needed in our aircraft. To furniture factories was assigned 




U.S. Official 
ABOVE, A BATTERY WAGON OF THE MILITARY 
TELEGRAPH (iN 1864) (fROM AN OLD 
print); BELOW, TELEPHONING BY WIRE- 
less from the earth to an airplane 
(world war) 



458 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the delicate task of making the wings — spruce frameworks 
covered with cloth. When peace came these factories had 
produced 13,396 Liberty Motors, and we were turning out 
completed airplanes at the rate of 1500 a month. Had 
the war continued three months longer our own factories 
would have been supplying our armies with everything 
they needed — rifles, cannon, ammunition, aircraft, gas, gas 
masks (p. 470), tanks (p. 456). 

Early in 191 7 German submarines were sinking allied 
ships by hundreds. To help in replacing this tremendous 
loss the United States went to work with all its might. 
Congress created the Emergency Fleet Corporation, gen- 
erally known as the Shipping Board, of which Charles 
M. Schwab became the head. His task was to stimulate the 
production of ships not only by increasing the number of 
shipyards but by inducing all the trades that might con- 
tribute to this result to increase immensely their output. 
Furthermore, he had to teach men unfamiliar with ship- 
building how to do work entirely strange to them and he had 
to persuade shipwrights to work longer hours than ever be- 
fore. One of Mr. Schwab's devices for stimulating work was 
the holding of competitions in riveting. The riveting record 
for the whole country was made by John Omir, who drove 
12,209 rivets in nine hours. Though there was pressing need 
for ships before ours were ready (section 427), the Shipping 
Board accomplished a great work : it increased the yards 
from 61 to 198, sent to sea 496 ships, and was at work on 
1028 ships when the war closed. 

All this reorganization of industry necessitated a special 
arrangement for the swift movement of supplies; therefore 
the government took possession of the railways " for the du- 
ration of the war," agreeing to return them to their owners 
within twenty-one months after the declaration of peace. 
The Secretary of the Treasury, William G. McAdoo, be- 
came Director General of the railroads. The telegraph and 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 



459 



telephones were also taken over by the government for the 
duration of the war and placed under the control of the 
Postmaster General. 

432. Privations. In a great number of ways — some direct, 
some indirect — the nation was called upon to submit to 
privation in order to 
carry the burden of this 
enormous war. Food 
was the first subject of 
concern, and the cereal 
crops in 191 7 were un- 
usually small. To meet 
the needs of all the allied 
countries, there was ut- 
most need of economy 
and cooperation. In 
America a Food Com- 
mission was created , and 
Herbert C.Hoover (sec- 
tion 419) was appointed 
Food Administrator. A 
system of rationing was 
established, especially 
in the use of wheat flour 
and of sugar. Bakers 
were required to mix 
other flours with that of 
wheat in making bread. 

Quite as serious was the problem of fuel. The Germans 
were using the coal mines seized from the French and Bel- 
gians. To make up for this loss to our great continental 
ally, to provide transportation for men and supplies, to keep 
the vast munition plants going at full speed, there was need 
from America of a vast quantity of fuel. A Fuel Adminis- 
trator, Dr. Harry A. Garfield, regulated the distribution. 




MANY GREAT VESSELS WERE BUILT AT HOG 
ISLAND NAVY YARD DURING THE WAR 

From a lithograph by Thornton Oakley 



46o SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Industries necessary to the war were given full supply; 
others were reduced. All unnecessary use of fuel and the 
products of fuel— light and power — was forbidden. Orna- 
mental electric signs disappeared. Street cars were required 
to make less frequent stops. During the winter of 191 7- 
191 8 one day each week was a ''heatless day," when heat 




U.S. Official 
AMERICAN RED CROSS ESTABLISHING A HE.'XDQUARTERS POST IN FRANCE 

was shut off in many classes of buildings. Similarly, there 
were Sundays when no automobiles were used for private 
purposes. To lessen the use of artificial light Congress 
adopted a ''daylight-saving" plan which was already in use 
abroad and had been under discussion here. From the last 
Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October all clocks 
were required to be set forward one hour. 

433. The Women's Land Army. Nothing is more remark- 
able in connection with the World War than the great part 
played by women. When soldiers are counted by the million 
the fighting countries are almost emptied of their able-bodied 
men. This was the case in England, where six men out of 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 461 

every ten went to the front, leaving only the elder men and 
boys at home. There the Women's Land Army took up 
every form of service which the men had been compelled to 
abandon. Wearing uniforms, with trousers instead of skirts, 
these women worked in the fields, made munitions, took 
charge of hospitals, drove ambulances, even served as police- 
men. American women were prepared, whenever it became 
necessary, to follow the example of the women of England 
and of the equally courageous women of France. The war 
did not last long enough to necessitate in America such a 
women's army as was formed in England. But it was no 
exaggeration to say that all the vast burden of the war 
was divided equally in America between men and women. 
In many of the organizations assisting the government ( sec- 
tion 430) women were as important as men. There was a 
beginning of actual enrollment of women for service under 
the War Department. Voluntary uniformed organizations of 
women were formed by the Motor Corps of America, by the 
National League for Women's Service, and by the Red Cross. 
As ambulance drivers these women were at the disposal of 
the great military hospitals, to which they gave tireless 
service, especially in 191 8, when the wounded came home 
in shiploads from France (see section 441). Another great 
service was rendered by these brave women in the winter 
of 1917-1918, when influenza became epidemic and deaths 
were hourly occurrences. So many of our physicians and 
nurses had been sent abroad with the army that the situa- 
tion at home became extremely grave. Had it not been for 
volunteer women ambulance drivers, it would have been 
in many cases impossible to bring the stricken and helpless 
victims of influenza to the hospitals. 

434. Our Women in France. American women rendered 
priceless service near the battle lines in France. In con- 
nection with our French camps (section 429) the govern- 
ment established schools, hospitals, recreation centers, and 



462 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

churches. All the noted welfare societies were invited to 
take part— the Y.M.C.A., the Y.W.C.A., the Knights of 
Columbus, the Jewish Welfare Board, the Salvation Army, 
and others. These societies, with government aid, main- 
tained clubhouses, gave entertainments, held religious serv- 
ices, and in a thousand ways kept up the spirits of the men. 
All this was done so close to the front that often the welfare 
workers were under fire. And great numbers of them were 
women volunteers. It was chiefly on the gracious presence 




ARRIVAL OF THE FIRST AMIKK AN TKA.NSPUKT AT A IMtRT IN FRANCE 

of American women that the government relied to keep 
strong in the soldiers the feeling that they were still closely 
in touch with the great homeland beyond the sea. Often 
when an American soldier started forward to go ''over the 
top" the last noncombatant who called a cheery word to him 
was some gallant American woman whom the horrors of war 
could not dismay. 

435. New Dangers of 1918. While the Americans were 
making such great preparations the situation in Europe took 
a new and startling turn. This was due to a revolution which 
occurred in Russia. It began just before we entered the 
war. A sudden uprising dethroned the Czar and set up a 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 463 

republic (March 15, 191 7). The original leaders of the 
Russian Revolution were high-minded democrats, and the 
Allies were confident that Russia would continue to do her 
share in opposing Germany. Suddenly a different set of 
leaders became popular in Russia and began preaching the 
doctrine of ''peace at any price." These Bolsheviki, as they 
were called, overthrew the revolutionary government (No- 
vember 7, 1 91 7) and started negotiations with Germany 
(December 23, 191 7). Their leaders, Lenin and Trotzky, 



:^ Ojj 




J^jfiBP 


^Ah^fl1^^tM^A.-::^,,Wli. '"""".'■:. 


^^ 





LANDING OF AMERICAN SOLDIERS IN FRANCE 

From the port of arrival they were sent to training camps before going 

to the front 

are generally believed to have been in German pay. At 
Brest-Litovsk, a town of Russian Poland, the Bolsheviki 
made a shameful peace (March 3, 191 8) which (i) split up 
the old Russian Empire into several distinct countries (see 
map, (2) made large cessions of territory to Turkey and 
Germany, and (3) promised Germany a huge indemnity. 
Since then Lenin and Trotzky have been masters of Russia. 
The Bolsheviki have mercilessly crushed everybody who op- 
posed them. They profess to be the champions of the work- 
ing class and aim to destroy or control all other classes. 



464 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

436. How Germany profited by the Russian Collapse. Since 
Germany now had nothing to fear from Russia she could 
move enormous armies from the Eastern to the Western 
Front. In the middle of March, 1918, her divisions facing 
the British outnumbered their opponents three to one. On 
the twenty-first of the month, with overwhelming superiority 
of numbers, the Germans burst upon the British at the point 
where their line joined the French. Regardless of their own 
losses the German commanders hurled forward dense masses 
of picked troops in successive waves. By nightfall terrible 
gaps had been formed in the British front line. Through 
these gaps the German torrent of fire and steel was surg- 
ing against the British reserves. Thus began the battle 
of Picardy, one of the fiercest ever known. The German 
purpose was to capture Amiens and separate the British and 
French armies. But though the allied lines bent far back, 
they did not break. The invaders were forced to halt a few 
miles east of Amiens (April i, 1918). This terrific ''drive" 
of the Germans was followed by four others. The five drives 
of 191 8 recovered almost all the ground the Germans had 
lost since the battle of the Marne (section 415) and placed 
them again very nearly at the outskirts of Paris. In the 
spring of 191 8 the Germans seemed to be winning the war. 

437. America to the Rescue. In America this terrible news 
produced but one effect. A single question was heard 
throughout the land, ''Why aren't we there?" When it was 
known that a detachment of American engineers took part 
in the heroic combat which checked the Germans under the 
walls of Amiens the whole nation rejoiced, but this did not 
lessen our anxious eagerness to get our whole army to the 
front. It was then that we made the arrangement with 
England (section 427) which enabled us to rush our reen- 
forcements across the ocean. As England and France had 
put their last men into battle, the one chance to overcome 
the German myriads lay in America's reenforcement. The 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 



46s 



Germans knew this. For that reason their commanders, 
Von Hindenburg and Von Ludendorf, pressed their attack 
with reckless indifference to the sufferings of their own men. 
They meant to crush England and France before America 
could arrive. Mr. Lloyd George, the prime minister of 
England, described the situation as "a race between Field 
Marshal Von Hindenburg 
and President Wilson." The 
President won. Our ^' first 
million" (section 427) turned 
the scale. 

438. Foch. At the moment 
of deepest anxiety, when 
Amiens was in danger, the 
Allies put all their armies 
under the command of one 
general, Ferdinand Foch. This 
great soldier had distinguished 
himself at the battle of the 
Marne (section 415). His 
appointment as generalissimo 
was applauded in all the allied 
countries, not only because of 

his ability but because it was felt that the crisis demanded a 
single directing head. President Wilson cabled General Foch 
his congratulations. General Pershing went at once to Foch's 
headquarters and said : ^^The American people would hold it 
a great honor for our troops were they engaged in the present 
battle. . . . Infantry, artillery, aviation — all that we have 
— are yours to dispose of as you will." 

439. Foch waits for the American Reenforcements. From 
the end of March to the middle of July Foch slowly, stub- 
bornly, drew back before the Germans. He dared not do 
otherwise until America's first million was on hand. Mean- 
while, in their second drive (April, 191 8) the Germans struck 




MARSHAL FOCH 



466 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the British with redoubled fury, aiming to hew their way 
through to the English Channel and separate the British 
army from England. Sir Douglas Haig called upon his sol- 
diers to "hold every position to the last man." The dogged 
courage of the British and the arrival of French reenforce- 
ments kept the Germans from reaching the Channel. Turning 
southwest, the Germans in their third drive ( IMay 27-June i ) 
again reached the Marne (section 415). During this drive 
the Americans began to share in the fighting. Our First 
Division, in ^ brilliant engagement, saved the town of 
Cantigny (May 28). In the (first) battle of Chateau- 
Thierry, Americans of the Second Division, who had been 
hurried to the front, contributed nobly to bringing the third 
drive to a standstill (June i). While the Germans were 
pressing their fourth drive (June, 191 8) American marines 
seized and held Belleau Wood, where they conducted them- 
selves so gallantly that the French government has renamed 
the place "The Wood of the Marine Brigade." The Ger- 
mans lost heavily in their fourth drive and made few gains. 
A lull in the fighting followed the storming of Vaux by the 
Americans (July i). Two weeks later the Germans opened 
their fifth drive by a second furious attack on Chateau- 
Thierry (July 15). The battle extended eastward sixty 
miles through the famous city of Reims, which had been 
desolated by German shells. In this battle the Americans 
played a great part. The Forty-second Division held a posi- 
tion east of Reims against furious attacks. The Twenty-sixth 
Division captured Torcy. At Chateau-Thierry a terrific 
German advance crossed the Marne, but was at length 
driven back by the Third American Division in some of 
the grimmest fighting of the war. 

440. Second Battle of the Marne. The fifth German drive 
was held as if by a stone wall. This was due to the arrival 
of America's first million. Foch had 300,000 Americans 
in his battle line on "the Reims front." The remaining 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 



467 



Americans, placed at less critical points, made it possible for 
him to bring up great numbers of French veterans to the 
vicinity of Reims. A million men, including three hundred 
thousand Americans, were massed in front of the Germans 
when their attempt at a fifth drive came to nothing. There- 
upon Foch attacked them. On July 18, 191 8, began the 




U. S.Official 
GENER-AL PERSHING DECORATING AN AMERICAN SOLDIER AT BULLIGNY, 
FRANCE, SEPTEMBER 7, 1918 



second battle of the Marne. At last the advantage of num- 
bers was with the Allies, and the Germans were swept 
backward before the fury of the allied advance in a crushing 
defeat. 

441. The American First Army; St. Mihiel. Foch now as- 
signed to General Pershing a part of the front that was to be 
held altogether by American troops. This '^American sec- 
tor" stretched southeastward from a point near Verdun, past 
the town of St. Mihiel. A ^'salient,'" or projection, of the 
German line had its apex at St. Mihiel. The Germans called 



468 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

this projection a dagger thrust at the heart of France. To 
drive them out of the St. Mihiel salient was the first duty 
of the American First Army, as Pershing's men were called. 
Swiftly, silently, 600,000 Americans were assembled along 
the two sides of the salient (see map, p. 472 ). No American 
army had ever before attempted so large an undertaking. To 
prevent the Germans from knowing what we were about, our 
troops moved to their positions only at night. Our airmen 
scouted over the enemy's lines and brought back exact in- 
formation of their arrangements.^ A hundred thousand maps 
were prepared and distributed among the soldiers. Five 
thousand miles of telephone were laid. In the rear 70,000 
hospital beds were made ready for the wounded. During 
the battle more than 1,500,000 shells were fired from the 
American cannon. 

In a rainy dawn (September 12, 191 8) American soldiers 
sprang out of their trenches both south and west of the 
salient and rushed upon the German lines." So sudden, so 
irresistible, was the double rush of the Americans that the 
German defense crumbled before it. At some points the 
Germans were not able to save themselves by flight, 
and German cooks were forced to serve oncoming Americans 
with the hot breakfasts they had prepared for their com- 
rades. Within twenty-four hours the two American advances 
from opposite sides of the salient had joined hands, and 
the Germans had been driven back to a new line along 
the northeast side of what two days before had been the 
St. Mihiel salient. 

442. The Battle of the Hindenburg Line. The Germans had 
now been pushed back to the great system of defenses which 

^ Many gallant feats were performed by our air scouts in the course of 
the war (section 431). Many airmen lost their lives; among these was the 
daring young Lieutenant Roosevelt, son of President Roosevelt. 

-From the south advanced Divisions i, 2, 4, 5, 42, 82, 89, 90; from the 
short west side advanced Division 26 with some French divisions ; in reserve 
were Divisions 3, a, 35, 78, 80, 91. 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 469 

they had occupied in March before the drive at Amiens 
began. It was known as the Hindenburg hne. Besides 
trenches and forts it comprised intricate entanglements of 
barbed wire^ to impede the advance of infantry. Probably 
no other line of fortifications ever made was so complete. 
The trenches often were floored with concrete and lighted 
by electricity. Behind the line — its '' artery," as the soldiers 
said — was a railway linking the cities of Strassburg, Metz, 
Sedan, and Lille. The Germans confidently believed that 
the Allies could never pierce the Hindenburg line. 

But Foch knew that he could. He meant to drive right 
through it at several points and cut the "artery" — that is, 
the railway. Thus he would make it impossible for the 
Germans in the various parts of the line to act together. 
Each portion of the German army would have to fight its 
own battle without help and supplies from elsewhere, or 
beat a hasty retreat. Just what Foch planned came to pass. 
The battle of the Hindenburg line — the greatest battle in 
history, employing four million men — ended in a splendid 
victory for the Allies. 

443. The Breaking of the Hindenburg Line. Foch paid 
us the compliment of allowing the Americans to open this 
colossal battle. The First American Army struck the Ger- 
mans opposite it September 26, 191 8. But the men of our 
First Army were not the only Americans engaged. In other 
armies — French and British — American soldiers were in- 
cluded ; they won fresh honors with a British army that 
attacked in Belgium, and with the famous British Fourth 
Army, that assaulted the line near Cambrai. On Septem- 
ber 29 General Rawlinson of the British Fourth Army sent 
forward a column composed of three divisions, the Twenty- 
seventh and Thirtieth American and the Forty-sixth British. 

iThis American invention, after proving invaluable in fencing the great 
farms of the West (section 363), proved equally useful as a defense in war 
and has been adopted all over the world. 



470 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



This column effected the first breach in the Hindenburg line. 
Said Sir Douglas Haig: "The deeds of the Twenty-seventh 
and Thirtieth American Divisions, which took Bellicourt and 
Nauroy and gallantly sustained the desperate struggle for 

Bony, will rank with the high- 
est achievement of the war." 

444. Battle of the Argonne. 
Just as Foch had foreseen, 
after a few days the great battle 
broke up into a series of battles, 
in each of which a part of the 
German forces made its own 
separate defense against one of 
the advancing armies of the 
Allies. None of these actions 
was more obstinate or more 
heroic than our battle of the 
Argonne ( September 2 6-Novem- 
ber 7). The battle takes its 
name from the Argonne Forest, 
a region of hills and thick woods 
through which the Germans had 
constructed four successive lines 
of defense. One after another, 
these lines were pierced by the 
Americans amid frightful tem- 
pests of shell fire. An incident that will never be forgotten 
was the adventure of the ''lost battalion," — part of the Sev- 
enty-seventh Division, — which went forward more rapidly 
than was intended, was cut off, surrounded, and for three 
days, practically without food or water, held its own until 
rescued by the main American advance. In this great battle 
we employed over 1,000,000 soldiers, captured 16,000 pris- 
oners, took 3000 machine guns, and lost 120,000 killed and 
wounded. 




GAS MASKS HAD TO BE USED 
WHEN THE GERMANS MADE USE 
OF POISONOUS GAS THAT DRIFTED 
WITH THE WIND AGAINST OUR 
SOLDIERS 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 471 

The fighting ended at the old town of Sedan, where our 
army for the first time raised the American flag above a 
captured European city (November 7, 1918). 

445. The Armistice, November 11, 1918. From Sedan we 
were preparing to advance northeastward when news came 
that Germany had sued for peace. Five things which took 
place far apart contributed to bring the war to an end : 

I. All the series of battles which together make up the 
"super-battle" of the Hindenburg line had been successful. 



AMERICANS GOING OVER THE TOP 

While we were crashing through the Argonne into Sedan 
the French had smashed the German defenses both on the 
right and on the left of us. The British Fourth Army, in 
some of the most terrible fighting of the war, with our men 
still participating, had hewn its way straight through the 
middle of the line. In Belgium the Anglo-Belgian forces 
had destroyed the line at its right flank. When Pershing 
took Sedan the Germans were in full retreat all along the 
Western Front. 

2. All land operations of the Allies the world over, during 
the six weeks of our Argonne battle, were directed by Foch. 



472 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



He sent the Italians (section 418) against Austria (Octo- 
ber 24). A crushing victory won by General Diaz, in whose 
army there was an American contingent, induced Austria 
to abandon her ally, Germany, to sue for peace, and to 
accept the terms dictated by her opponent (November 3). 




MAP SHOWING AMERICAN OPERATIONS IN EUROPE 

Second battle of the Marne and subsequent actions along the Aisne : Divi- 
sions I, 2, 3, 4, 26, 28, 32, 42, 77. St. Mihiel: Divisions i, 2, 4, 5, 26, 42, 82, 
89, 90 (in reserve, Divisions 3, 33, 35, 78, 80, 91). Attack south of Cambrai: 
Divisions 27, 33, part of 33. Advance in Belgium near Ypres: Divisions 27, 
30> 37) 91- Battle of the Argonne: Divisions i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 26, 28, 29, 32, 
ii, 35, 37, 42, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 89, 90, 91 

3. Foch also directed the allied forces in southeastern 
Europe (section 418) to advance against Bulgaria (sec- 
tion 418). Sweeping up the Vardar Valley (September 15) 
the Allies inflicted a terrible defeat upon the Bulgarians, 
who promptly laid down their arms and withdrew from the 
war (September 30). 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 



473 



4. A British army under General Allenby was fighting 
Turkey in Syria. A year previous this army had captured 
Jerusalem (December 10, 191 7). Now it moved north- 
ward, capturing Damascus (October i, 191 8) and Aleppo 




U. S. Official 
REFUGEES RETURNING WITH THE TROOPS FROM THE REGION NORTH OF 
CHATEAU-THIERRY 



(October 26), with the result that Turkey, hemmed in by 
victorious enemies, made haste to surrender (October 31). 
5. Abandoned by their allies, with their beaten armies in 
full retreat, the Germans turned upon the imperial govern- 
ment, which had promised them at the opening of the war an 
easy victory, German soldiers at Kiel mutinied (November 
6) and there were rebellions in many German cities. William 
II, terrified by these signs that his power was broken, an- 
nounced his abdication of the imperial crown, deserted his 
army, and fled to neutral Holland (November 10); while 



474 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



General Von Ludendorf sought safety in neutral Sweden. 
By this time a German revolution had taken place and a 
republican government was set up. 

The new German government 
agreed to an armistice (November 
II, 1 9 1 8 ) . They promised ( i ) to 
surrender so much war material 
that the German army would be 
rendered incapable of further re- 
sistance ; ( 2 ) to withdraw all their 
armies east of the Rhine and put 
Germany west of the Rhine tem- 
porarily under the control of the 
Allies; (3) to surrender the en- 
tire German fleet; (4) to allow 
the Allies to occupy three bridges 
across the Rhine, — at Mayence, 
Koblenz, and Cologne, — and at the 
east end of each bridge a small 
territory which would enable the 
Allies to rush their armies into cen- 
tral Germany should the war be 
renewed. The aim of the Allies was 
to render Germany helpless while 
they debated among themselves 
the terms of a treaty of peace. 

446. Koblenz. The French oc- 
cupied the bridgehead of Mayence, 
the British occupied Cologne, and 
Koblenz was occupied by the Americans. Koblenz, the oc- 
cupied territory opposite, and the bridge connecting were 
turned over for American soldiers to guard and an American 
general to rule. 

447. The Surrender of the German Fleet. The last event 
of the war was the surrender of the German fleet. To 




VICTORY MEDAL 

Presented to each man who 
served in the United States 
forces in the World War. One 
bar appears on the ribbon for 
each of the major engagements 
in which the man participated 



476 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

receive its surrender the grand fleet of the Allies, in the 
later hours of a bright, moonlit night, left its anchorage off 
the coast of Scotland and steamed forth into the North Sea. 
At eight o'clock on the morning of November 2 1 it was 
drawn up in two lines, three miles apart, forming a majestic 
avenue. The ships flanking that avenue were all in battle 
trim. All of their mighty guns were shotted ; every gun 
crew was in position ; every commander sweeping the 
horizon with his binoculars was prepared to give the word 
to fire. They were expecting the vanquished German fleet. 
Said Admiral Rodman (section 428 ), whose American dread- 
naughts formed a part of the waiting fleet, ''There is not 
the slightest possibility of any trouble, but we are overlook- 
ing no chances." 

Presently a little British cruiser which had been sent out 
to meet the Germans was sighted to the eastward ; then 
behind her, in squadron after squadron, the enemy ships. 
On they came, following their pilot, — great dreadnaughts, 
powerful battle cruisers, destroyers, in columns, five abreast. 
They passed along that avenue of the allied triumph, while 
from the ships of the victors not a sound was heard. When 
the last of the German ships had passed, the grand fleet 
closed up behind them. They were conducted to the Firth 
of Forth, where the formalities of surrender were completed. 
The World War was at an end. 

SUMMARY 

We entered the war unprepared. Conscription was at once 
established and a national army was begun. The first "draft" 
occurred in June, 1917; the second in September, 1918. Our 
soldiers were sent to nearly all the scenes of action. On June 26, 
19 1 7, our first detachment reached France. Our destroyers, under 
Admiral Sims, joined the British destroyers and gradually cleared 
the Atlantic of German submarines. A battle squadron under 
Admiral Rodman joined the grand fleet in the North Sea. 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 477 

To pay for the war we raised money (i) by taxing incomes, 
profits, and luxuries; (2) by loans — five in all — and by war 
stamps. Unpaid service saved the government the cost of many 
employees. Many forms of industry were reorganized with a view 
to utilizing their output in the manufacture of munitions. The 
railroad, telegraph, and telephone lines were taken over by the 
government "for the duration of the war." Women conducted 
many forms of relief work and also formed volunteer motor corps. 
Other women went to France to assist the welfare organizations 
in providing for the wants of the soldiers. 

In March, 19 18, after making peace with the revolutionary 
Russian government, Germany threw her whole strength upon the 
Western Front and penetrated the allied lines. The danger thus 
created was met (i) by combining all the allied forces under one 
commander, Marshal Foch, and (2) by hurrying over American 
reenforcements. Three hundred thousand Americans shared in 
the second battle of the Marne, which ended in the German re- 
treat. Shortly after General Pershing, commanding the First 
American Army, won the brilliant battle of St. Mihiel. At last 
began the colossal battle of the Hindenburg line, the greatest in 
history. Two American divisions fighting in the British Fourth 
iVrmy participated in the attack that made the first breach in the 
Hindenburg line. The First American Army fought the battle 
of the Argonne, and after desperate fighting took possession of 
Sedan. In Germany a reaction against the government overturned 
the monarchy and set up a republic. The German republic asked 
for terms and was granted an armistice on condition that it sur- 
render its fleet and immense quantities of war material and 
receive allied garrisons east of the Rhine (November 11, 19 18). 
These terms were carried out, and American soldiers occupied 
Koblenz. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

Use the same references as for Chapter XXIV, with the addition of the 
following for teachers : Bassett, Our War ivith Germany ; *Beck, The 
Evidence in the Case\ Beer, The English-Speaking Peoples; Daniels, 
The Navy and the N^ation ; Davisox, The American Red Cross in the 
\Var\ Director of Munitions, America's Munitions (Government 
Printing Office) ; DoRR, A Soldier's Mother in France ; *Gibbs, The Way 



478 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to Victory (II), The Repulse, and Now it Can be Told-, Gibson, A Journal 
from our Legation in Belgium-, *G()MPERS, American Labor and 
the War; Hayes, Brief History of the Great War, chaps, xi-xv ; 
Kelley, What Afnerica Did-, Lauzanne, Fighting France-, Law, 
Italy in the I Tar; Lloyd George, The Great Crusade-, Palmer 
* America in France and *Our Greatest Battle ; *Roose\elt, The 
Great Adventure-, Scherek, The Aation at War-, Strother, Fight- 
ing Germany''s Spies; Tompkins, The Story of the Rainbow Division. 

For the Pupil : Bott, Cavalry of the Clouds ; Can field. Home Fires 
in France; Catlin, With the Help of God and a Few Marines; Dawson, 
Carry On; Egan, The War in the Cradle of the World; Gibbons, 
And they Thought we Wouldn't Fight; Gibbs, The Way to Victory; 
Hankey, a Student in Arms; Hough, The Web; Lauder, A Minstrel^ 
in France ; O'Brien, Outwitting the Hun ; Paine, The Fighting Fleets; 
Palmer, America in France and Our Greatest Battle; Thompson and 
Bigwood, Winning a Cause; Turkington, My Country, chaps, xxi, xxii. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

[i. Compare American unpreparedness in 1861 and 191 7. (See 
Bassett, Our War with Germany, 71-79, 114-130; Hayes, Brief His- 
tory, 219-224; Lee, The Valor of Ignorance; McKinley, Coulomb, 
and Gerson, School History of the Great War, chap, xiii ; Ogg, Na- 
tional Progress, 384-390; Stephenson, Abraham Lincoln, 143-144, 168- 
175.)] 2. How did we raise an army in 191 7? 3. How were recruits 
trained (section 429)? 4. Why was there such great need of de- 
stroyers ? 5. What great victory was won by the Anglo-American fleet 
of destroyers? 

6. Name four ways in which money was raised for the war. Explain 
what is meant by the income tax and the excess-profits law. 7. What 
do you mean by "reorganization of industry"? How did different in- 
dustries cooperate in making aircraft ? What was done to hasten the 
construction of new ships ? 

[8. Write a brief essay on Women in War. (See sections 337-340, 
433. 434 ; ^Iso Chamberlain. Women and War Work (Survey, May 19, 
191 7); Franks, Household Orgafiization for War Service (motto of the 
book, "America expects every woman to do her duty"); Hart and 
Lovejoy, Handbook of the War, 98, loo-ioi, 105-110; Pennybacker, 
What our Coimtry asks of its Young Women ; Rinehart, The Altar 
of Freedom.)'\ [9. Write an essay on What Children can do in War 
Time. (See Hagedorn, You are the Hope of the World; Hart and 
Lovejoy, Handbook, 109-110.)] 



OUR FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY 479 

10. What did the Germans attempt in 1918? [11. Tell the story of 
General Carey and the force he organized out of British and American 
engineers for the defense of Amiens. (See Bassett, Our War with Ger- 
many ; Hayes, Briej History, chap, xiii ; Simonds, History of the Great 
War.)] 12. How were American reenforcements hurried to France (sec- 
tions 427, 437)? 13. How did Foch conduct the war during the next 
three months? 14. What did Americans do at Cantigny? at Chateau- 
Thierry (first battle)? in Belleau Wood? at Vaux? in the second 
battle of Chateau-Thierry? 

[15. Write an essay on How we helped turn the Tide against 
Monarchy. (See Bassett, Our War with Germany ; Hayes, Brief His- 
tory of the Great War, chap, xiv ; Hazen, Modern European History, 
chap, xxxviii ; Palmer, America in France ; Sibley, With the Yankee 
Division in France ; Tompkins, The Story of the Rainbow Division. 
The weekly reports of the Independent during April, June, and July, 
igi8, are especially good.)] 16. Describe the battle of St. Mihiel. (See 
Palmer, America in France; also Bassett or Hayes.) 17. What was 
the Hindenburg line ? Explain Foch's plan of attack. Indicate at least 
two points where Americans participated. 

18. What was the task before our army in the battle of the Ar- 
gonne? [19. Write an essay on Our Greatest Battle. (See Bassett, 
229-282 ; Hayes, 326-334 ; *Palmer, Our Greatest Battle ; Sibley, 
257-281; Tompkins, 102-144.)] [20. While we were fighting our 
way toward Sedan, what had happened outside France ? (See Hayes, 
Brief History of the Great War, chap, xix.)] 21. Following the flight 
of the emperor Germany accepted an armistice. What does this 
mean ? What were the terms on which fighting was stopped ? 22. What 
part of the conquered territory was occupied by American forces ? 




THE KING OF ENGLAND SALUTING THE STARS AND STRIPES IN LONDON 



■CAC^l^^CTaoni'nnarararaa^aKOiate^ana 



iki^'M-' 




RVRAL FREE DELI\ERY 



CHAPTER XXVI 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 



448. Our Country established among the Chief Powers. On 
the day when American warships took part in the surrender 
of the German fleet the United States was finally established 
as one of the chief powers of the world. In the course of 
three hundred years we had expanded from a little offshoot 
of the English kingdom into a huge republic whose timely 
reenforcement had saved the other free nations from des- 
potic conquest. Let us review the causes of our country's 
power. 

449. How the Americans acquired their Land. The deepest 
foundation of power is land. No people, however valiant, 
can be powerful unless their land is large enough for them 
to become numerous and rich enough for them to become 
prosperous. The story of our acquisition of this splendid 
land of ours has twelve parts. 

I . The Claims of the English Kings. Our earliest title to 
the soil on which we live is due to the discovery of a part 
of our Atlantic coast by Cabot, sailing under a commission 

480 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 481 



from King Heniy VII (section 16). This oldest title was 
strengthened in the glorious reign of the great queen Eliza- 
beth by the visit of Sir Francis Drake to the coast of 
California (section 17) and by Sir Walter Raleigh's expedi- 
tion to our south Atlantic coast (section 18). Because of 
these discoveries King James I laid claim to the central part 




THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS (SHADED AND BLACK AREAS) 

of North America between latitude 31° and latitude 48° 
(map, p. ^^). King Charles II extended the English claim 
southward to latitude 29° (map, p. 83). 

2. The Early English Settlements. The English did not 
succeed in settling all this enormous territory. In spite of 
them the Spaniards went up the Pacific coast and took 
possession of California (section 234); the French entered 
the valley of the St. Lawrence (section loi) and passed on 
into the valley of the Mississippi (section 104); the Dutch 
seized the valley of the Hudson (section 64); while the 
Swedes seized the valley of the Delaware (section 66). One 
hundred and sixty years after Cabot and a hundred years 



482 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

after Drake the English had actual possession of only two 
small fragments out of all the great territory which they 
claimed (section 63). 

3. The Absorption of the Dutch and Swedes. About the 
middle of the seventeenth century English America began 
its career of expansion. The first step was the absorption of 
the Dutch and Swedes and the occupation by the English 
of most of our Atlantic seaboard (sections 67, 69, 70). 

4. The Conquest of the French. After we had struggled 
with the French for more than a hundred years (Chapter 
\'l), the Treaty of 1763 required them to abandon control 
in North America (section 123) and established English rule 
over practically all the continent east of the Mississippi, with 
the exception of Florida and New Orleans (section 123). 

5. Our Area when we seceded frojn the Empire. Follow- 
ing our secession from the British Empire, the Treaty of 
1783 (section 184) fixed our boundaries as follows: On the 
north, beginning on the Bay of Fundy, the line ran to the 
northwest angle of Nova Scotia, thence along the watershed 
south of the St. Lawrence and down the Connecticut River 
to the 45th parallel, along that parallel to the St. Lawrence 
itself, thence through the middle of the Great Lakes and 
on past the western end of Lake Superior to the Lake 
of the Woods ; on the west, from the Lake of the Woods to 
the headwaters of the Mississippi/ down the Mississippi to 
the 31st parallel ; on the south along the 31st parallel to the 
Chattahoochee River, thence along the present northern 
boundary of Florida to the sea. 

6. The Louisiana Purchase. In 1803 we crossed the Mis- 
sissippi and began a new era of expansion which ended in our 
possessing all and more than all of the territories which 
James I and Charles II gave the early colonies in their 

^Sce section 234 for the Treaty of 181 8, which corrected a mistake in 
the treaty. The headwaters of the Mississippi were originally supposed to 
be west of the Lake of the Woods. 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 483 

charters (sections 24, 61, 79^ 84). The Louisiana Purchase 
was defined by the treaties of 181 8 (section 234) and 1819 
(section 234), It gave us all the western part of the Mis- 
sissippi Valley south of the 49th parallel. 

7. The Florida Purchase. The northern coast of the Gulf 
of Mexico eastward from New Orleans was purchased from 
Spain in 181 9 (section 234). 

8. The Maine Compromise. The boundary laid down in 
the Treaty of 1783 with Great Britain proved a puzzle be- 
cause part of it ran along "the St. Croix River." But there 
were two rivers of that name. Which was referred to in 
the treaty? The Webster- Ashburton Treaty (section 271) 
compromised the matter in 1842 and gave us, finally, the 
northern part of Maine. 

9. The Annexation of Texas. In 1845 we annexed Texas 
(section 271), whose boundary was fixed at the Rio Grande 
by treaty with Mexico in 1848 (section 277). 

10. The Acqtdsition of Oregon. The Oregon country 
(section 272), after long contention^ was in 1846 divided 
between the United States and England (section 273). 
Our northern boundary was thus extended due west along 
the 49th parallel to the Pacific. 

11. The Mexican Cession. By the Treaty of Guadalupe 
Hidalgo in 1848 Mexico ceded us all the Southwest (section 
277) except a small strip acquired in 1853. 

12. The Gadsden Purchase. -This small strip, now in- 
cluded in the states of Arizona and New Mexico, was called 
the Gadsden Purchase (section 277, note). 

450. "Continental United States." This vast country, which 
is almost the same size as the whole of Europe/ is well 
suited by nature to form a single great power capable of 
defending itself from invasion while supporting from its own 
resources an immense population. No one has described 
it better than did President Lincoln : 

^Europe, 3,872,561, and continental United States, 3,616,484 square miles. 



484 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

A nation may be said to consist of its territory, its people and 
its law. The territory is the only part which is of certain dura- 
bility. "One generation passeth away and another cometh, but the 
earth endureth forever.'' . . . The great interior region bounded 
east by the Alleghenies, north by the British dominions, west by 
the Rocky Mountains, and south by the line along which the 
culture of corn and cotton meets . . . contains more than one 
third of the country . . . certainly more than one million square 
miles. ... A glance at the map shows that territorially speak- 
ing, it is the great body of the republic. The other parts are but 
marginal borders to it. . . . In the production of provisions, 
grains, grasses, and all which proceed from them, this great in- 
terior region is naturally one of the most important in the world. 
Ascertain from statistics ... the large and rapidly increasing 
amount of its products, and we shall be overwhelmed with the 
magnitude of the prospect presented ; and yet this region has no 
seacoast, touches no ocean anywhere. As part of one nation, its 
people now find, and may forever find, their way to Europe by 
New York, to South America and Africa by New Orleans, to 
Asia by San Francisco. 

Skirting this Great Central Plain, the three "marginal 
borders" — the East, the South, the Pacific slope — all have 
their especial importance. All form military bulwarks for 
the center. Furthermore, the East, with its iron and coal 
mines in the Appalachian valleys (sections 90, 130) and its 
swift rivers (section 208), is one of the busiest manufac- 
turing regions anywhere on earth. The South, having won- 
derfully rich soil and a semitropical climate, is preeminently 
the home of cotton, which is now the leading material for 
cloth throughout the world. The West beyond the Rockies 
combines the characteristics of East and South, ranging in 
its agriculture from the growing of almost tropical fruit in 
southern California to the cultivation of hardiest Northern 
grain in Washington. The region of enormous mountains, 
where the Far West and the center join, is as rich in its 
mines of gold and silver as are the Eastern mountains in 



486 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

iron and coal. This area — so vast and yet so well arranged 
to form one country — is often spoken of as "Continental 
United States." We think of it as ''America." It is the 
homeland of our extensive dominion, just as the British 
Isles are the homeland of the widespread British Empire. 

451. Our Outlying Dominions. In the past seventy-five 
years we have acquired possessions outside the homeland. 
These are (i) Alaska, acquired in 1867 (section 357); 
(2) the Philippines with Guam Island (which lies between 
them and Hawaii and is valuable as a coaling station), to- 
gether with Porto Rico, which were ceded to us by the treaty 
with Spain in 1898 (section 390); (3) Hawaii, acquired in 
1898 (section 390); (4) Wake Island, a valuable coaling 
station between Hawaii and Guam, which we occupied in 
1898; (5) a number of small Pacific islands, useful as coal- 
ing stations, of which the most important is Tutuila in the 
Samoan Islands, occupied in 1899 (section 410); (6) the 
Panama Canal Zone^ acquired in 1903 (section 396); 
(7) the Virgin Islands — a group of little islands, formerly 
called the Danish West Indies, containing one of the finest 
harbors of the Caribbean Sea and invaluable as a naval base, 
especially as a means of defending the approach to the 
Panama Canal. We bought the V^irgin Islands from Den- 
mark for $25,000,000 in 191 7. 

452. The Change in the Face of the Land. When the first 
settlers landed at Jamestown our jcountry was a wilderness 
(section 22). During the seventeenth century the settlers 
worked their way up the Eastern rivers, slowly, through 
great forests (section 66). In the eighteenth century the 
foolish attempt of the king to prevent their crossing the 
Eastern mountains helped to bring on the Revolution (sec- 
tion 141 ). By the end of the eighteenth century the Indians 
had almost disappeared east of the mountains, and the East- 
ern forests had given place, generally, to farms. Mining had 
begun in the mountain valleys. Early in the nineteenth 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 487 

century the whites drove the Indians westward until they 
crossed the Mississippi. After that there was a pause in the 
struggle of the races, while the retreating Indians roamed 
the Far West, and the whites took possession of the rich 
lands between the Mississippi and the Eastern mountains. 




4/, /*^"-^&.^^.- "*"--.5^''' 




f hoio bcivice, Inc. 



SCENE ON A CATTLE RANCH IN THE NORTHWEST 



The complete settlement of this region was the great achieve- 
ment of the first half of the nineteenth century. Much more 
rapidly than along the coast in the preceding century the 
forests diminished, farms replaced them, roads were laid 
out, and cities were built. Regions that were called the 
backwoods or the frontier in 1800 were wealthy communi- 
ties — trading to the sea by steamboat and railway — in 1850. 
During this half century some immigrants crossed the 
Mississippi, settling Missouri (section 235) and Texas (sec- 
tion 267) and making a start at settlement in Oregon 
(section 2 72) and California (section 2 76), but not until after 



488 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the War of Secession did the real opening of the West (Chap- 
ter XXI) occur. Once started, it progressed so swiftly that 
it reads like a tale from the Arabian Nights. Like Aladdin's 
palace, that came into existence in a single night, there 
were Western cities that seemed to spring full-grown out 
of the earth, whose network of paved streets suddenly 
covered a stretch of open prairie over which but a little 
while before Indians were galloping their ponies in pursuit 
of buffalo. 

453. The Great Roads of America. This swift occupation 
of the continent was made possible by a series of famous 
highways. We have seen that roving Indians had begun lay- 
ing these highways out ages ago (section 22 ). Eastward of 
the Mississippi the main historic highways of our country 
are four: (i) the Mohawk Trail (sections 22, 205), over 
which New York and New England sent their people west- 
ward and northwestward; (2) the National Road (section 
236), from the headwaters of the Potomac across the "Mid- 
dle West" (over this road Pennsylvania, Maryland, New 
Jersey, and part of Virginia found their Western outlet); 
(3) the Wilderness Road (sections 141, 205), twining 
through the mountains, making use of the natural gateway 
of Cumberland Gap, and giving to lower Virginia and the 
Carolinas a passage into Kentucky and Tennessee and on to 
Missouri and Arkansas; (4) a less definite route skirting the 
mountains across upper Georgia and branching southwest- 
ward toward Mobile, New Orleans, and Natchez, and leading 
eventually, by one of its branches, to Texas. 

West of the Mississippi the wagon roads played a smaller 
part in developing the country. Railroads are the historic 
highways of the farther West. However, there was a famous 
old Spanish road that crossed Texas from northeast to 
southwest, passing through San Antonio. From San Antonio 
an ancient trail led away hundreds of miles northwestward 
to Santa Fe. What was known as the Santa Fe trail covered 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 489 

the long distance between that old Spanish city and St. Louis. 
In the opposite direction from Santa Fe a trail led to Cali- 
fornia, ending at San Francisco. The same point could be 




PROGRESS OF HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION 



reached from St. Louis by following the ''Oregon trail" up 
the Missouri River, past Fort Laramie and Salt Lake City, 
and then branching to the southwest. Over this trail went 
many of the ''Forty-niners" to California (section 278), 











\m-, 






492 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

while over the northwestern branch (see map, p. 485) went 
the early settlers of Oregon (sections 272, 273). 
The great Western railroads, historically, are four : 

1. When Congress chartered the Union Pacific Railway 
(section 360), California chartered the Central Pacific. The 
former, beginning at Omaha, followed in a general way 
the course of the old Oregon trail into northern Utah. The 
Central Pacific, beginning at San Francisco Bay, went north- 
eastward approximately along the trail used by the ^'Forty- 
niners." The junction of the two tracks near Ogden, where 
the last spike driven was of pure gold, established one of the 
world's most important highways. 

2. The Northern Pacific Railway connects Duluth, at the 
head of Lake Superior, with Seattle and Tacoma. This 
road is the main artery, so to speak, of the northern tier 
of Western states — Minnesota, North Dakota, Montana, 
Idaho, Washington. 

3. Hosts of immigrants were carried into the Southwest 
and on into California by a railroad that linked the Missouri 
valley with the Pacific slope by following pretty much the 
line of the Santa Fe trail. This is the Atchison, Topeka, 
and Santa Fe. 

4. The Southern Pacific, running close to the border of 
]\Iexico through the Gadsden Purchase (section 277) was 
projected soon after the Mexican War. Jefferson Davis, when 
Secretary of War, was eager to build such a road and caused 
extensive surveys to be made. The Southern Pacific is the 
direct route from New Orleans to San Francisco. Its course 
through Texas, at most places, is not far distant from the old 
Spanish road, which it crosses at San Antonio. 

454. Agricultural Development. In the course of three hun- 
dred years American agriculture has changed in every re- 
spect. Our first farms were mere patches of forest where 
the "girdled" trees stood black against the sun, while 
around their dead trunks sprouted Indian corn (section 22). 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 493 

From these humble beginnings, after a hundred and fifty 
years, grew the vast estates along the Hudson (sections 65, 
127), the large colonial farms of Rhode Island (section 92 ), 
and the great plantations of the South (section 131). Then 
came the movement into the West (section 205) and the 
cultivation of enormous Western farms (sections 255, 363). 
However, the greater part of the West was occupied by 
small farms. In fact, there are few things in our history 
more significant than the general disappearance of the large 
''landed estates," the dividing up of the land into farms 
comparatively small. This change had not begun in the 
middle of the eighteenth century ; it was completed by the 
close of the nineteenth. Nowhere is it more noticeable than 
in the South. The extensive plantations have almost all been 
broken up. Cotton is grown today not by a few owners of 
enormous estates but by an immense number of farmers, 
each cultivating a small area. The same is true, relatively, 
of the grain production of the North and West. 

Four causes explain our change from a country of large 
landed estates to a country of small farms : ( i ) The rapid 
movement of population in search of new homes. The gov- 
ernment aided this movement by the Homestead Act (section 
362). (2) During the nineteenth century manufacturing 
gradually became more profitable than farming, but it de- 
manded capital ; therefore the small farmer could not leave 
his farm and set up as a manufacturer. This the landed 
proprietor could do. In many cases he disposed of his large 
tracts of land and put his money into factories. (3) In the 
same way it was found that mining land, if it paid at all, paid 
better than farm land ; therefore people of wealth tended 
more and more to put their surplus money into mines. 
(4) The growth of cities drew people off the farms and into 
the towns. This came about partly because there were many 
opportunities to make money in town, partly because farm 
life was dull, while city fife was gay. 



494 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Recently five new things have changed the whole aspect 
of farm life. ( i ) The post office has established rural free 
delivery, sending the farmer's letters to his own gate. In 
the old days he had to go for them to a post office perhaps 
miles away. ( 2 ) The parcel*post makes it possible to buy a 
great variety of articles anywhere in the country and have 
them sent, if not to one's own door, at least to a station close 
by. Thus the farmer is no longer dependent on the little 
store of the next village. He can deal with New York or 




! Detroit I>ublisliing Co. 
STACKING HAY ON A GREAT WESTERN FARM 

Atlanta or New Orleans or Chicago or Omaha or San Fran- 
cisco as easily as with the village merchant. (3) The tele- 
phone (see page 503) enables the farmer's family to keep in 
cheerful touch with friends at any distance and to transact 
business as conveniently as does the man in town. (4) The 
low-priced automobile is perhaps the most important of these 
new things. It gives the farmer a means of rapid transporta- 
tion which brings him, almost everywhere, into convenient 
reach of some town where his family can find diversion. 
(5) Lastly, there are many new devices or improvements 
that make farm work easier indoors and out, and farm life 
pleasant, such as gasoline engines, windmills, improved light- 
ing and heating systems, phonographs, and motion pictures. 



WT 




THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 495 

The government assists the farmer in many ways. The 
Weather Bureau mails to him detailed forecasts of what 
may be expected in weather conditions. Bulletins issued by 
the Secretary of Agriculture and sent free give him the 
latest scientific information in connection with every phase 
of farming. The government also distributes seeds and 
plants to such farmers as will experiment with them and 
report their experience. Whenever diseases appear among 
plants or cattle the government sends out experts to study 
them and, if possible, find the cure. In no way has the gov- 
ernment done more for the agricultural industry than in its 
encouragement of systematic irrigation (see page 404). 

455. Business Development. What has led so many of the 
wealthier Americans to put all their money into manufac- 
tures or into mines or into railroads ? for these, with the 
industries related to them, are the chief forms of American 
business. There are five main reasons : 

I. As far back as the time of the embargo (section 225) 
the government began to create an '^artificial market" for 
American goods ; that is, by keeping out goods from abroad 
the government gave the home producer his chance to sell 
his manufactures. W^hen competition revived after the War 
of 1 81 2 a tariff was established which continued to '' protect" 
the American manufacturer (section 240). The tariff has 
been an issue in our politics ever since, and more often than 
not we have had a high tariff, practically excluding foreign 
competition in certain lines (sections 241, 311, 377). How- 
ever, in spite of the tariff some industries were not pro- 
tected ; for example^ dye-making. Until the beginning of 
the World War we got almost all our dyes from Germany. 
When Germany was blockaded (section 422) we ran short 
of dyes. At once the conditions of 1808 were repeated. Our 
men of wealth built dye works and employed our chemists 
to find out how dyes could be made at the minimum cost. 
Thus an active dye industry was established. 



496 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

2. The rapid growth of population, from something less 
than four millions in 1790 to more than a hundred millions 
in 1920, created an immense demand for implements and 
utensils of all sorts. Farm implements were among our most 
successful manufactures — so successful that they have gone 
all over the world and are met with today as far from home 
as the interior of China. Our cities necessitated many new 



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CHICAGO IN THE EARLY DAYS 
From an old print 

contrivances, such as electric cars ; while the rapid transac- 
tion of business called for such new inventions as the type- 
writer. The war has shown us that the airplane may soon 
take its place with the steam and electric railways in trans- 
porting the vast quantities of supplies consumed daily by 
our immense population. 

3. A change in what we call standards of living during 
the nineteenth century has led innumerable people to demand 
new comforts. We have seen that the farmer has his tele- 
phone, orders things by mail from the great centers, drives 
twenty miles in an automobile to talk with a friend, and 
takes his family perhaps the same distance to a moving- 
picture show. His family buys new books, orders candy by 
mail;, listens to a musical phonography reads magazines, takes 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 497 



a paper or two, and wears hats, gloves, shoes, coats, dresses 
that are all three times as costly as were those worn by a 
farmer's family fifty years ago. This change in the standard 
of living has taken place, 
more or less, in the lives 
of all Americans. In 
manufacturing the arti- 
cles demanded by this 
new standard thousands 
of business men have 
made their fortunes. 

4. The task of hand- 
ling all these things, of 
buying them from the 
producers, and of selling 
them to the people who 
use them calls for a great 
host of merchants large 
and small. On the one 
hand we have a few great 
trusts (section 366), on 
the other small dealers 
who are numbered by the 
thousand (see section 

478). 

5 . Great fortunes have 
also been made by sup- 
plying our export trade. 

Many American inventions besides our farm implements 
have gone all over the world. The traveler in Greece meets 
electric cars built in America ; if he visits the Pyramids 
of Egypt he is pretty sure to see other travelers taking 
snapshots with American pocket cameras ; American shoes 
are on many feet whose owners could not pronounce the 
word ^'America." American kerosene, sowing machines, 




IN CHICAGO TODAY 



498 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

automobiles, and typewriters are met with the world over. 
Furthermore, the exportation of our farming products is a 
great feature of American business. We send cotton abroad 
to England, France, Germany, Italy, by the million bales. 
Our grain, our meats, are the staple food of the British Isles ; 
without them all western Europe would run short of food. 

456. Our Labor Problem. Our ''agricultural interests" — 
that is to say, all the men and women who depend on agri- 
culture for their prosperity — and our "business interests," 
though they include a great part of our people, do not in- 
clude us all. What we know as ''labor" includes the bulk 
of those who are employed by others to work under direc- 
tion. Formerly we meant by "labor" only those who 
worked with their hands, but nowadays the term includes 
many who are not handworkers. Musicians and actors have 
enrolled themselves in the ranks of "labor" and have formed 
themselves into unions (section 367). The labor unions are 
one of the chief features of our present-day life. The union 
is a local association of workers which is part of a national 
association made up of many unions, such as the Brother- 
hood of Locomotive Engineers or the L'nited Mine Workers 
of America. These large associations of workers fix the 
prices their members must charge for their work, regulate 
the number of hours that shall constitute a working day, 
and when they think their associates are not receiving jus- 
tice they endeavor to get better conditions for them and in 
this endeavor sometimes go so far as to order strikes. 

/. W. W. Of late years American labor has divided into 
antagonistic groups. The disagreement between them is 
chiefly upon the question. How should labor advance its 
interests? The unions and the Federation of Labor (sec- 
tion 378), under such leaders as Mr. Gompers (section 430), 
hold that labor should contend with capital openly, with- 
out violence, in the spirit of "fair play." In the manage- 
ment of strikes they do not want to resort to force. A strike. 




AN EARLY AMERICAN MILL 




A GROUP OF MODERN STEEL MILLS 



500 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

they say, is a peaceable protest, not a war. Opposed to them 
is a new society, the Industrial Workers of the World 
(I.W.W.), which aims to stir up hatred between employer 
and employee. It would convert strikes into civil wars. 
These extremists hold much the same views as the Bolshe- 
viki in Russia (section 435) and, like the Bolsheviki, want 
to destroy or control all classes that do not actually work 
with their hands. Like the Bolsheviki, they justify murder 
and the wholesale destruction of property when it serves their 
ends. The strong opposition of our ablest labor leaders to 
the Bolsheviki is one of the encouraging signs of the times. 
Though strong for what they consider their own rights, these 
leaders do not propose to abolish other classes. ''There is no 
fundamental antagonism," says Mr. John Mitchell, late 
president of the United Mine Workers, "between the laborer 
and the capitalist. . . . Broadly considered, the interest 
of the one is the interest of the other, and the prosperity of 
the one is the prosperity of the other." No one has expressed 
the ideas of conservative American labor more ably than did 
President Lincoln : 

The strongest bond of human sympathy outside the family 
relation should be one uniting all working people of all nations 
and tongues and kindreds. Nor should this lead to a war upon 
property or the owners of property. Property is the fruit of labor, 
is desirable, is a positive good to the world. That some should 
be rich shows that others may become rich, and hence is just 
encouragement to industry and enterprise. Let not him who is 
houseless pull down the house of another, but let him work dili- 
gently and build one for himself, thus by example insuring that 
his own shall be safe from violence when built. 

Arbitration. The old way of settling a dispute between 
labor and capital, between employees and employers, was 
almost war (sections 367, 378). For a long while intelli- 
gent people on both sides have tried to substitute arbitration 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 501 

for conflict. President Cleveland led the way in urging 
Congress to compel arbitration (section 378). Though Con- 
gress has created a general Arbitration Board, to which all 
labor disputes may be submitted, and also a special Railway 
Labor Board, the popular tendency is to call in the president 
in great disputes between employers and employees. Presi- 
dent Roosevelt set a famous example when he interfered in 
the anthracite coal strike (section 380). President Wilson, 
during his two terms, was called upon to take part in almost 
all the serious labor disputes, many of which he succeeded in 
adjusting. In 19 19 he assisted in adjusting a great coal 
strike which ended in increasing the wages of the miners 
37 per cent. So large is our labor problem that it has 
brought about the organization of the Department of Labor 
(1913), whose head is a member of the cabinet. 

457. The Fourth Group of Americans, There is a fourth 
group of people who are necessary to a nation's greatness : 
all those who neither till the soil nor work in the trades and 
whose work cannot be described as '^business." Doctors, 
lawyers, clergymen, teachers, artists, are included in this 
group. And who could be more useful ? It is by what these 
people do — b}^ the scientific, the legal, the religious, the edu- 
cational, the artistic, achievement of any people — that they 
are chiefly known in after time. He is a poor patriot who 
does not long to see his country excel in these ways, who 
does not ardently hope that his own generation will 

Leave behind a name, I trust. 
That will not perish with the dust. 

458. Science and Education. Americans are celebrated for 
their skill in adapting scientific knowledge to useful ends. 
Beginning with our first great scientist, Franklin (section 
135) ; following him with such men as Whitney (section 209), 
McCormick (section 255), Morse (section 282, note), Maury 
(section 283), Howe (section 282), Ericsson (section 318), 



502 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Eads (section 372), we have been splendidly successful 
in ''applied science." Conspicuous among a host of recent 
inventors are Edison, who perfected the incandescent elec- 
tric light and the phonograph, and the two Wright brothers, 
who were the leaders in the gradual development of the 







%-'*^-' 




OLD AND NEW MEANS OF LOCOMOTION REPRESENTED AT THE HUDSON- 
FULTON CELEBRATION 



airplane. With our natural bent for putting science to 
use, it is not strange that in medicine and in the man- 
agement of hospitals Americans stand high. Among our 
remarkable successes is ridding Havana of yellow fever 
during the brief period of American control (section 392). 
Still more striking is the medical history of the Canal Zone. 
Before the United States took possession of that region it 
was a death trap — so frequent and so terrible were the 
epidemics of yellow fever, so prevalent was malarial fever. 
By a rigid cleaning up and by the extermination of the 
mosquito the Canal Zone has been freed of its dangers. 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 503 



No country has a more complete system of public schools. 
Beginning with that early law which rendered school attend- 
ance compulsory in New England (section 53), school 
legislation has grown until today every state makes large 
appropriations for its schools. The United States maintains 
a Bureau of Education, which studies educational problems 
and gives information on the 
subject to all who desire it. 
The school-teachers of the 
nation have combined in the 
National Education Associa- 
tion, which holds conventions 
each year for the discussion 
of school management and of 
courses of studies. Similarly, 
the colleges and universities 
hold annual conventions with 
a view to exchanging ideas 
upon their difficulties. The 
professions, such as law and 
medicine, also have associa- 
tions whose aim is to improve 
the educational equipment of 
their members. These also 
hold annual discussions. In fact, these educational conven- 
tions are among the most momentous things in American 
life. They are quietly and steadily bringing us all into 
closer and closer union. 

459. Religion. In matters of religion we stand firm on 
the noble principle enunciated in the Constitution: ''Con- 
gress shall make no law respecting an establishment of reli- 
gion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." The great 
Christian denominations which were organized in our coun- 
try during colonial times — the Baptist, Congregational, 
Lutheran, Methodist, Presbyterian, Protestant Episcopal, 




ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 

Inventor of the telephone 



504 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Roman Catholic — have all grown with the growth of the 
country. There has been added to our religious life the 
Jewish Church. The joint action of all these, together with 
smaller religious bodies, was remarkably shown when a 
''welfare drive" was conducted in the summer of 191 8 
(section 434). The drive culminated in a great meeting in 
New York, presided over by a distinguished Baptist, Charles 
E. Hughes,^ with religious exercises in which a Roman Cath- 
olic archbishop, a Protestant Episcopal bishop, and a Jewish 
rabbi took part. Among new denominations are two that 
have originated in this country: 

1. The Mormon Church (page 403, note i) has its head- 
quarters at Salt Lake City, where its chief temple is a 
famous edifice. This church has its membership chiefly in 
the Rocky Mountain country between Colorado and Cali- 
fornia, though it sends missionaries into many countries. 

2. The Christian Science Church, founded by Mrs. jMary 
Baker Eddy, has its headquarters in Boston, though its mem- 
bership extends into all parts of the world. 

460. Literature and the Drama. In recent years American 
writing has been strikingly successful in expressing humor 
and in the short story. 

Samuel L. Clemens, known to all the world as Mark 
Twain, set everyone laughing with his boys' story of ''Tom 
Sawyer"; later, his "Innocents Abroad" made fun of the 
ignorant American traveler in Europe; his "Connecticut 
Yankee at King Arthur's Court" satirized some of the ideas 
we have inherited from the Middle Ages ; while his master- 
piece, "Huckleberry Finn," for its combination of humor, 
story-telling, and bitter satire, is unrivaled. 

Poe and Hawthorne created the American short story. 
Bret Harte showed the world that this form of literature had 
possibilities never before appreciated. In some ways he was 
the teacher of Kipling. Though in his own country Harte's 

1 Republican candidate for president in 1916. 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 505 

example has been followed by a host of skillful writers, he 
has never been excelled. Among his noted successors are 
George W. Cable, Joel Chandler Harris, Thomas Nelson 
Page, James Lane Allen, Frank R. Stockton, Edward Everett 
Hale, O. Henry^ Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward, Sarah Orne 
Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman. 

Two novelists of high distinction are William Dean 
Howells and Henry James. The later poets include Sidney 
Lanier, Eugene Field, James Whitcomb Riley, and Walt 
Whitman, Second to none as a writer of eloquent prose is 
Abraham Lincoln, whose "Gettysburg Oration" has become 
an English classic. 

In the drama — though we have not, as yet, any famous 
names of our own — Americans take the keenest interest. 
The great classics of our literature, the plays of Shakespeare, 
are always popular. Recently many playwrights of Ameri- 
can birth have attracted attention, but their fame is still to 
be made sure. How great is our interest in the theater was 
strikingly shown in 19 19, when the city of Tacoma estab- 
lished a municipal theater whose support was guaranteed by 
the city. Another famous experiment is the beautiful open- 
air theater built and maintained by the University of Cali- 
fornia especially for rendition of the classic plays of ancient 
Greece. 

461. Architecture; Painting; Sculpture; Music. Since the 
Columbian Exposition (section 384), whose designers were 
influenced by the architecture of Paris, some American 
architects have continued to follow French styles, while 
others have turned to ancient Rome for their inspiration and 
still others to fifteenth-century England. Roman imitation 
was carried out with masterly skill in the Pennsylvania 
Railway Station, New York, where the central apartment — 
one of the grandest in the world — is a study from the baths 
of the Emperor Caracalla. What is known as Collegiate 
Gothic, studied from the lovely buildings of the universities 



5o6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of Oxford and Cambridge, has recently become the favorite 
American style for schools and colleges. The lofty Wool- 
worth Building, New York, — perhaps the finest American 

structure of recent years, — 
is in a similar English style, 
which is called by architects 
the perpendicular because of 
the prominence it gives to 
up-and-down lines. 

One of the greatest nine- 
teenth-century painters was 
an American, — James M'Neill 
Whistler, who began work as 
a map draftsman in the War 
Department and died famous 
throughout the world because 
of the strange beauty of his 
peculiar pictures. Perhaps the 
greatest American sculptor 
was Augustus Saint Gaudens, 
whose heroic statues of fa- 
mous men are a priceless con- 
tribution to our history. His 
statue of Lincoln at Chicago 
is one of his most celebrated 
productions. 

In music also we have 
produced an original genius, Edward MacDowell, who is 
universally accorded high rank as a composer. He too has 
made his contribution to the history of his country. A won- 
derful surge of majestic sound is ''A.D. MDCXX," a com- 
position in which he expressed his feeling for the signifi- 
cance of the early voyaging to America. As has been said 
of it, ''We feel the passage of a civilization across a mighty 
sea, the courage of man triumphing over natural obstacles." 




THE WOOLWORTH BUILDING, 
NEW YORK 







LINCOLN, BY SAINT GAUDENS 



5o8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

462. The Position of Women in America. One peculiarity 
of American history is the fact that the story of our country 
begins with a woman for our ruler. Most nations have some 
great figure in the far past to whom they look back as to 
their remote founder. Everyone has heard the ancient story 
of Romulus founding Rome, At the beginning of our history 
stands the figure of the great queen Elizabeth^ perhaps the 
greatest queen in the history of the world. During her reign 
was fought the war with Spain which settled the question 
whether there was or was not to be any free democratic 
American people (section 19). It was in the name of 
Queen Elizabeth that Drake took possession of our Pacific 
coast (section 17) and that Raleigh's colonists took pos- 
session of the Atlantic coast (section 18). In her honor 
the first English colony in America was named Virginia 
(section 18). 

It is fitting that a country which had such a patroness 
should be noted for the great importance of women in its af- 
fairs. This was due in part to the conditions of colonial life, 
— to the many demands upon the New England woman while 
her husband was at sea (section 132) and to the numerous 
responsibilities which devolved upon the Southern woman in 
the management of a great plantation (section 131). Then, 
too, from the beginning, American women have made the 
most of their opportunities of leadership. Mrs. Brent in 
Maryland (section 38), Mrs. Hutchinson in Massachusetts 
(section 52), Mrs. Pinckney in South Carolina (section 126, 
note), were merely the most conspicuous among many. In the 
changing conditions of the nineteenth century ( Chapter XV) 
the activities of women increased in importance, leading, 
among other consequences, to the establishment of co- 
education and of colleges especially for women ( section 256). 
Of late years many women have served as college professors 
and as presidents of colleges. A noted instance was Alice 
Freeman Palmer, long the president of Wellesley College. 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 509 

The humanitarian work begun by Dorothea Dix (sec- 
tion 284) has been continued in all parts of our country 
by many women. 

Especially have women labored to improve the condition 
of our cities. No problem of American life is more serious 
than this. Our cities, which have grown so suddenly to such 




A CLASS AT HULL HOUSE, CHICAGO, WHERE MANY YOUNG PEOPLE OF 
FOREIGN PARENTAGE FORM IDEALS OF CITIZENSHIP AND SERVICE 

great size, have their crowds of poor people, often foreigners, 
who inhabit the ''slums." Few people anywhere are more 
wretched. To encourage these inhabitants of the slums, 
to teach them better ways of living, to assist them in find- 
ing work, ''settlement houses" have been established among 
them, each with its group of high-minded "residents," who 
aim to become friends of the slum people and to teach 
them our customs. None is better known than Hull House, 
Chicago, under the direction of Miss Jane Addams. In all 
the "movements" of recent times women have taken their 
full share. Among the abolitionists (section 259) there was 



510 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



no figure more striking than Frances Wright (p. 325). We 
have seen that two American women have founded new 
churches — Mrs. Hutchinson (sections 52, 61) and Mrs. Eddy 
(section 459). The part of women in our great wars (sec- 
tions 337-340, 433, 434) cannot be exaggerated. America 

is especially rich in women 
writers (section 460). 

463. Woman Suffrage. Al- 
most a hundred years ago 
the question was asked, '' Why 
not let women vote?" A 
movement to secure the bal- 
lot for women had among its 
chief leaders Susan B. An- 
thony and Frances Willard. 
As far back as 1861 Kansas 
gave women the right to vote 
on all matters connected 
with schools. In 1869 Wyo- 
ming led the way in giving 
women just the same rights 
as voters that men had. Other states slowly followed Wyo- 
ming's example.^ In 191 6 Montana elected Miss Jeanette 
Rankin, the first woman member of the National House 
of Representatives. 

Meanwhile it had been proposed to give women the ballot 
in all the states by an amendment to the National Constitu- 
tion. The great services of women in the World War secured 
many friends for this proposal. In the terrible days of 191 8, 
when all Americans — women as well as men — were giving 
all their energies one way or another to the winning of the 
war, President Wilson appealed to Congress to recognize the 

^Colorado, 1893; Utah, i8q6; Idaho, 1896; Washington, 1910; California, 
1911; Kansas, Arizona, and Oregon, 1912; Montana and Nevada, 1914; New 
York, 1917; Michigan, Oklahoma, and South Dakota, 1918. 




SUSAN B. ANTHONY 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 511 

work of women by helping to make them voters. In 1919 
Congress drew up an amendment providing that the "right 
of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied 
or abridged by the United States or by any state on account 
of sex." This amendment was submitted to the states for 
ratification/ The first state to take action was Wisconsin 
(June 5, 1919), which ratified the amendment the day after 
its adoption by Congress. Other ratifications followed in 
quick succession. In August, 1920, Tennessee gave the 
amendment its thirty-sixth ratification. Thus the approval of 
the necessary three fourths of the states was obtained. The 
amendment was proclaimed a part of the Constitution on 
August 23, and at last the United States included among 
those entitled to vote the whole number of the women of 
the Republic. 

464. Elections. There are four ways in which American 
citizens may use their right to vote : 

I. National Elections. Every four years we elect a presi- 
dent. This is done in rather a complicated way. In every 
state each political party nominates "electors," who are 
equal in number to both the senators and representatives of 
the state in Congress. In what we call the presidential elec- 
tion we really vote for electors. After the election the men 
and women chosen as electors are known as the Electoral 
College. They choose the president. However, as each 
elector has been pledged to vote for the candidate nominated 
by his or her party, we know as soon as the election is over 
which candidate will be chosen. The choice by the electors 
is really no more than the official recording of the result of 
the election." 

^An amendment must be proposed by Congress and ratified by three 
fourths of the states in order to become law. 

"Originally the electors did actually elect the president. In those days the 
candidate who got the second largest vote of the electors became vice presi- 
dent, with the result that the president and vice president were pretty sure to 
be of opposite parties. Thus, when John Adams, Federalist, was president, 



512 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Every two years elections are held for members of the 
House of Representatives. Each state is represented accord- 
ing to its population. Congress decides on the ratio of rep- 
resentatives to population after each census. The first ratio 
following the census of 1790 (section 204) was i representa- 
tive to 30,000 inhabitants; today it is about i to 211,000. 
In 1920 five states — Arizona, Delaware, Nevada, New Mex- 
ico, and Wyoming — had but a single representative each, 
while the one great state of New York had forty-three. 

Until very recently senators were chosen by the legisla- 
tures of their states, but the Seventeenth Amendment re- 
quires them to be chosen by popular vote. Each senator 
holds office six years. 

2. State Elections. Our government is a ''federation"; 
that is, in every part of America the labor of government is 
divided between the national and the state authorities.^ 
Certain matters are in the charge of Congress ; certain 
others, in the charge of the state legislature. Congress leg- 
islates on all matters ( i ) that concern our relations with 
foreign countries, such as treaties and the tariff ; (2 ) that con- 
cern two or more states, such as the coinage of money, the 
mails, navigation of rivers, and railway traffic across state 

Jefferson, Democrat, was vice president. In 1804 the Twelfth Amendment 
provided that the electors should vote for president and vice president sepa- 
rately. Ever since the two have always belonged to the same party. Even 
before 1804 a movement had begun to require the electors to pledge them- 
selves in advance as to how they would vote. In 1800, in each party a 
"caucus," or council of leaders, named their party candidate and required 
their electors to promise to vote for him. The caucus continued to direct 
the electors until the National Convention came into use (section 264). 
^See section qq for our first attempt at federal government. 

*Among the most important places in Washington the location of the 
following are shown in the picture on page 513 : i, Lincoln Memorial ; 
2, Washington Monument ; 3, New National Museum ; 4, Agricultural Build- 
ing ; s, government war buildings ; 6, United States Capitol ; 7, Congressional 
Library ; 8, United States House of Representatives office building ; q. United 
States Senate office building; 10, Botanical Gardens; n, White House; 
12, White House ellipse. 




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514 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

lines, which is regulated under act of Congress by the Inter- 
state Commerce Commission (section 366, note 3 ) ; ( 3 ) that 
have been put into the hands of Congress by the Constitu- 
tion or by an amendment to the Constitution, such as the 
liquor traffic (section 263, note). On everything else the state 
legislates.' It keeps the peace, punishes criminals, regulates 
the holding of property, maintains schools, and does a thou- 
sand things that combine to make life comfortable and well 
ordered. The state elections, held at whatever time the state 
prefers, choose the officers necessary to accomplish these ends. 
Every state elects by general vote at least a governor and 
a legislature and frequently many other officers. What 
is known as the referendum- is an arrangement by which an 
act of the legislature may be referred to a popular election in 
which the people either approve or abolish it. The ''initi- 
ative"- is a popular election in which all of those voting 
express their preference for or against a proposed law for 
which a small percentage of voters have asked. 

3. Comity Elections. States are subdivided into counties^ 
(section 131). A sheriff keeps order in the county ; a treas- 
urer receives taxes ; the county judges administer justice. 
As a rule these are all elected by the people of the county. 

4. Municipal Elections. In cities special local officers are 
needed to take charge of the dense mass of population.' The 
work of the sheriff has to be supplemented by the local 
police force. Special taxes, to be expended within the city 
limits, are collected by a city treasurer. Local criminal 
courts try the numerous offenders whom the county court 

1 In the Constitution (Article I, sections VIII-X) arc lists of the things 
Congress shall attend to and of those that are in the care of the states. 

2 Elections of this sort are virtually an attempt to apply the principle of 
the New England town meeting (section 46) to the business of an entire 
state. 

3 Louisiana is an exception ; it has parishes instead of counties. 

4 Because of the great size of modern cities the town meeting (section 
46) has not been used as a mode of city government. The city government, 
generally speaking, is a little copy of the state government. 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 515 

Is too busy to deal with. For the safe management of traf- 
fic in city streets, and for many other incidental matters, 
regulations are needed — different from those which are in 
force outside the city, in what we call the country. To deal 
with all these difficulties peculiar to towns, municipal elec- 
tions create municipal officers — including a mayor, a council 
(or city legislature), a treasurer, and a school board.^ Often 
the judges are also elected, though sometimes the mayor or 
other officials appoint them. 

465. How the Vote is taken. Formerly there was much dis- 
satisfaction with the way the vote was taken. In those days 
each party printed the names of its candidates on a slip of 
paper called a ballot. On election day each voter came before 
the judges of election at a place previously advertised and 
himself put his piece of paper into a '^ ballot box." Some- 
times dishonest voters slipped in more than one. Sometimes 
improper influence was used on those who were voting in 
this public way. To prevent this we generally use nowadays 
what is called the Australian ballot. The new plan requires 
the government to print all the candidates of all the parties 
on one large ballot. When a citizen comes to the voting 
place the election officials have before them a full list of all 
persons entitled to vote at that place. When the voter ap- 
pears his or her name is found on this list and checked off. 
Then the officials give him or her an official ballot. The 
voter goes into a booth and in secret marks the names of the 
candidates whom he prefers. The ballot is then folded so 
that none of the marking can be seen, and dropped into the 
ballot box. In this way it is impossible for anyone to vote 
twice, and no one can tell how anyone else has voted. 

iln many cases our mode of city government is unsatisfactory. There is 
a widespread feeling that it is too cumbersome, that some simpler form must 
be devised. What is known as commission government has been widely ad- 
vocated. This plan abolishes the old complicated city government and puts 
the affairs of the city into the hands of a small committee, usually five, who 
are to manage it as a board of directors manages a great business. 



Si6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

466. The National Government. The government of the 
United States consists of three distinct parts : Congress, 
the president, and the Supreme Court. 

1. Congress. It is important to know why our Congress 
has its two parts, or Houses. The oldest reason for this is 
the fact that our ancestors, when they drew up the Constitu- 
tion, had been accustomed for many generations to two 
Houses of Parliament — the House of Lords and the House 
of Commons. But there is another reason why we have the 
two Houses. In the Constitutional Convention of 1787 (sec- 
tion 194) the men from the large states wanted to have all 
the representation in Congress proportional to population. 
This frightened the little states. They were afraid that 
the large states would on all occasions vote them down and 
run the government as they pleased. At last a compromise 
was agreed upon. It was decided that in one House each 
state should have the same representation — two senators — 
and that in the other House its representation should be in 
proportion to its population. It was also agreed that no law 
could go into effect until both Houses agreed to it. 

2. The President. When our ancestors debated the Consti- 
tution there were many who did not want to have a president. 
They were afraid that in setting up a president they were 
really setting up a king. We now see that their fears were 
groundless. And yet the officer that they created and named 
president was simply the old-time king, without a crown. 
Their idea was that he should stand above all parties, take 
advice from all, but decide himself what was best. That was 
how Washington tried to rule as president — an uncrowned 
king. But it would not work. Even Washington found that 
the people would not leave the decision of important ques- 
tions to his individual government. He found that he had 
to tell them in a general way what he meant to do, and 
secure their approval ; that is. to say, he had to have behind 
him an organization of voters pledged to support him — 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 517 

a political party. In his second term Washington accepted 
the leadership of the Federalist party. Every candidate for 
president since then has frankly admitted that he belonged 
to a party and that he would, if elected, carry out the pro- 
gram which that party had agreed upon. This program is 
called the party platform. 

The president holds office for four years and nowadays 
receives an annual salary of $75,000. He, as well as the two 
Houses, must approve an act of Congress before it can 
become a law. If he pleases he may veto an act, which can- 
not then go into effect unless two thirds of both Houses vote 
in favor of it a second time. The Constitution, in Article II, 
explains in full the rights and duties of the president. 

If the president dies while in office the vice president 
becomes president for the remainder of the term. If the 
vice president dies he is succeeded by the Secretary of State, 
and so on, in case of other deaths, until seven members of the 
cabinet (section 219) have followed as president.^ 

3. The Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is composed 
of justices who are appointed by the president with the con- 
sent of the Senate, but who, once appointed, hold office for 
life. The presiding judge is called the Chief Justice. We have 
a Supreme Court because in the old days, before the Con- 
stitution was adopted (Chapter X), there was no way of en- 
forcing the Articles of Confederation (section 185). So much 
confusion resulted (section 193) that our fathers learned 
a needed lesson, and when they drew up the Constitution 
they provided for a court empowered to say what the Consti- 
tution meant and when its provisions were being violated. 

■•When the law was made (1886) the cabmet numbered seven. The secre- 
taries succeed the president in the order of the dates when their departments 
were established, which are as follows: (i) Secretary of State, 1789; 
(2) Secretary of the Treasury, 1780; (3) Secretary of War, 1789; (4) At- 
torney General, 1789 ; (5) Postmaster General, 1789 ; (6) Secretary of the 
Navy, 1789 ; (7) Secretary of the Interior, 1849 ; (8) Secretary of Agriculture, 
1889; (9) Secretary of Commerce, 1903; (10) Secretary of Labor, 1913. 



5i8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

467. The American People. Behind all these various offi- 
cers,, directing and controlling them, is the American people. 
Who are they? 

This great nation began as a handful of English colonists 
on the James River (section 25). If our present mode of 
taking the census extended backward through the eighteenth 
and seventeenth centuries the first census would be dated 
1 610 and would give us a population of but two hundred and 
twenty-five. When the census of 1790 was taken we num- 
bered nearly four million. Almost all the white Americans 
of that day were immigrants from the British Isles or descend- 
ants of such immigrants. A few were of French, German, 
or Dutch descent ; but, however descended, they had all 
come to have qualities of their own that marked them off as 
a new people (section 135). Just why this should have 
happened, just what influences had worked upon the original 
English settlers and converted them into Americans, it is 
hard to say, but the fact remains. About the middle of the 
eighteenth century the new people, the Americans, had come 
of age so to speak (section 135). These were the people 
who numbered four million in 1790. Their characteristics 
were the same that we have today — good humor, a love of 
freedom, cheerfulness in bad fortune, generosity in good for- 
tune, warmheartedness, shrewdness, carelessness of danger, 
and immense energy. 

Whatever it was that created the new nation, the same 
force went on at work for another hundred years, making 
Americans out of the thousands upon thousands of immigrants 
who poured into our country between 1790 and 1890. Until 
the latter date this process of "assimilation," or the making 
of Americans out of immigrants, did not receive any seri- 
ous check. Since 1890 we have received large numbers 
of immigrants who have not been Americanized, so that 
today we have in parts of our country a foreign population. 
How this has happened and what it signifies will be 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 519 

discussed in the next chapter. By "the American people" — 
in distinction from the groups of unassimilated foreigners — 
we inean that great body of men and women who have been 




STEPS IN TRANSCONTINENTAL TRANSPORTATION 

molded by the same creative influences that were at work 
in our country throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, and 
nineteenth centuries. 

The national character which we had developed in the pre- 
ceding century was solidified and made permanent by a great 



52 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

number of influences, among which seven are of iirst im- 
portance in explaining our difference from other nations. 

1. The abundance of free or very cheap land made it easy 
for every American to keep his independence of character. 
If a workman, he had no need to stand in fear of his em- 
ployer. At any moment he could go out West and turn 
farmer (section 289). Our liberality with the public land 
was a powerful influence in Americanizing the immigrants. 
Many an unhappy peasant from eastern or southern Europe 
who had never dreamed of owning land in his native country 
was made into a new man by the gift of an American farm. 
His sons or grandsons showed their gratitude in 191 7 when 
they proudly claimed the right to fight for their country — 
America. 

2. During the nineteenth century there was, in the main, 
real freedom of business in America. Very few men with 
brains and energy failed to find a good business opportunity. 
This also tended to make them hopeful and self-reliant. 
Like the free land, it helped to Americanize our immigrants. 
Many a poor tradesman from France or Austria or Bohemia 
became, in the kindly freedom of American life, a man of 
fortune. His son crossed the ocean eastward in an officer's 
uniform to fight for democracy in the World War. 

3. Our free schools have taught our children — and also 
the children of all the oppressed who have come to us — the 
thrilling story of the long battle of the Anglo-Saxons to be 
free. The great ideals of the founders of our country (sec- 
tion 98), of the wars against the Bourbons (section 112), 
of the struggle with George III, were in the hearts of all 
Americans when in 191 8 we gave our savings to help win 
the war that was to put down despotism. 

4. We practice self-government all the time in a hundred 
ways, so habitually that we hardly notice what we do. Our 
clubs, our societies, our associations of all sorts, are all 
organized on the idea that a group of people can manage 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 521 

their affairs through discussion and by taking votes with 
justice to everyone. Our rules for conducting meetings in 
this way are known as *' parliamentary law." Few things 
work more effectually in training our immigrants for Ameri- 
can citizenship than their participation in clubs and societies. 
For example, a club of Polish children at a settlement house 
(section 462), governing their meetings in strict accordance 
with parliamentary law, are forming a point of view of which 
their parents as children never dreamed. 

5. All grown Americans of good character are free to 
take part in politics. The feeling that one has a right to 
do this has an incalculable effect in upbuilding his or her 
feeling of independence. 

6. 'All of us are equal before the law, all have the same 
right to go into court and bring suit against those whom we 
think have injured us, 

7. Above all else, as a means of keeping bright our ideal 
of freedom, we have the English language. The forms of 
English — their directness, their simplicity — are a constant 
reminder to its users to be straightforward and independent. 
It has been said that Italian is the loveliest language, French 
the most subtle, Spanish the most high-sounding, while Eng- 
lish, whatever else it is, is the language of freedom. From 
the time when Queen Elizabeth gathered her fleet to resist 
the Invincible Armada (section 19) to the battle of the 
Argonne the English-speaking peoples have been the chief 
enemies of despotism. Our noble literature reflects the whole 
of this long struggle of democracy against the kings. 

SUMMARY 

In the long story of the acquisition of the land now included in 
continental United States there are twelve distinct steps, beginning 
with the discoveries of Cabot in 1498 and closing with the Gadsden 
Purchase in 1854. Our outlying possessions have all been acquired 
since 1854. 



52 2 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The land of the United States has undergone a transformation 
as the frontier of settlement has slowly moved across the continent. 

Following the lines of ancient trails the paths of settlement have 
marked out a great system of historic highways. 

Agriculturally in the past two hundred years we have passed 
from a country of large landed estates to a country of small farms 
with a majority of our people living in towns. 

Business on a great scale has grown out of the immense increase 
of our population and the changes in the standard of living. 

We have a labor problem that involves questions of the activi- 
ties of unions, of the struggle between conservative labor and the 
I. W. W., and of arbitration. 

The importance of women in American life has grown with the 
country and has led at length to the adoption of the Nineteenth 
Amendment. 

Through local, state, and national elections the people create 
and control, either directly or indirectly, all the branches of our 
government. 

The national government is headed by Congress, which makes 
the laws but does not enforce them ; the president, who does not 
make laws, but whose duty is to enforce them ; the Supreme 
Court, which decides whether laws are constitutional. 

The American people began as a little offshoot of the English 
people, but changed in the new conditions of America into a 
distinct nation with a character of its own. This birth of a new 
people was complete about 1763. Of the many influences deter- 
mining the character of the American people, seven are of chief 
importance : the abundance of free land in our formative period, 
the freedom of business in that period, the Anglo-Saxon tradition 
of political freedom, the practice of self-government, our general 
participation in politics, equality before the law, and the English 
language. 

AIDS TO STUDY 

As this chapter is in the nature of a summing up, most of its references 
have been given already in connection with the topics here restated and 
regrouped. The teacher is again reminded of the value, for recent develop- 
ments, of such magazines as the Litenuy Digest or Current Opinion ; the 
Survey is useful for economic problems ; the Manufacturers' Record and 



THE PROGRESS OF THE AMERICAN NATION 523 

Comrneixe atid Finance contain a great deal of valuable historical matter. 
The nearer we approach the present, the harder it is to find historical 
jnaterial in convenient form. The following may be added to previous 
references: *Becker, United States, chzYis.-xxivi-xx; ViOGAKT, Economic. 
History, chaps, xx, xxii, xxxii, xxxiii ; Brigham, Geographic Influences, 
chaps, xi, xii ; *Bryce, The American Commonwealth (edition of 191 1); 
GuiTTEAU, Goverfiment and Politics in the United States, chaps, iv-vi, xv, 
xxxvii ; Hall, Immigration ; Hendrick, The Age of Big Business 
(Chronicles of America); Jexks, The Immigj-ation P?'oblem; Keller 
and Bishop, Industry and Trade; Lane and Hill, American History 
in Literature, 1 58-1 77 ; LoxG, Americati Literature ; Moody, The Mas- 
ters 0/ Capital (Chronides of America); MuzzEY, headings, 559-582; 
*Orth, The Armies 0/ Lai?or (Chronides of America) ; *Osgood, History 
of Industry, chap, xix ; Sparks, National De'i'elop7nent, chaps, i-iii ; 
Van Dyke, TJie American Spirit; Walker, Discussions in Economics 
and Statistics, H, 417-451; *\V'ebster, History of Commerce, chaps. 
xix, XX. 

For the Pupil : To the references previously mentioned may be added 
the following : Barstow, The Progress of a United People ; Faris, 
Makers of Our History, chaps, xxiii-xxviii ; GuiTTEAU, Preparing for 
Citizenship, chap, x; Lane and Hill, American History in Literature, 
158-177; Mowry, American Lrvoitions and I/ive/itors, iir-ii6, 252- 
297; Roosevelt, Stories of the Great IVest; Southworth, Building ■ 
our Country, H ; Turkixgton, My Country, chaps, i, xiii-xviii. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

[i. Draw a map showing the twelve steps in our acquisition of conti- 
nental United States.] 2. What three things were named by Lincoln 
as together composing a nation? 3. What did he call "the great body 
of the republic"? [4. Describe each of the three "marginal borders" 
of the "great interior region." (See Brigham, Geographic Influences; 
Semple, Geographic Conditio ns.)'\ 5. Name our outlying dominions. 
6. Describe the four great wagon roads that were formed out of Indian 
trails. 7. Name four Western railways that have great historical im- 
portance. [8. Write an essay on Development of Agriculture in the 
United States. (See Bogart, Economic History, chaps, xx, xxiii ; 
Coman, Industrial History and Economic Beginnings of the Far West, 
II, 167-331.)] 9. How has the growth of population stimulated 
business ? 

[10. In what ways has American business expanded? (See Bogart, 
Economic History, chap, xxxii.)] 11. Explain (i) "labor," (2) I.W.W., 



524 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

(3) industrial arbitration. [12. Explain what you mean by the 
"fourth group." Name some noted scientists. What have they 
invented ? How have we distinguished ourselves in medicine ? Tell 
all you know about American educational institutions. What is char- 
acteristic of Americans in religion ? Name some great writers and their 
writings. Name a famous American building. Name a great painter 
and a great musician. (See Brooks, As Others See Us ; JNIacMaster, 
History IV, 552-555; V, chaps, xlvii-xlix ; VI, 79-101, 421-429; 
VII, 73-99, 134-162, 185-208, 221-227; Perry, American Spirit in 
Literature; Rhodes, History (III, 59-113) and The South in the 
Building of the Nation (V, 595-655 ; VII, chaps, i, xiii, xiv, xx-xxii) ; 
Turner, The New West, 16-31, 40, 106-110; Wendell, Literary His- 
tory of America.)] 

13. Between the time of Queen Elizabeth and today what have 
women done to build up our country? Tell the story of the move- 
ment for woman's suffrage. 14. How do we elect a president ? How 
are Congressmen chosen? How are senators chosen? [15. Explain 
''initiative" and "referendum." (See Guitteau, Government and Pol- 
itics, 102-103 ; Paxson, The New Nation, 249-250 ; Woodburn, 
Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States, chap, xxii.)] 

16. What are the seven chief influences that have been at work 
ever since early colonial times forming the American people ? 








COURT OF HONOR AT THE COLUMBIAN WORLDS FAIR 




THE SPIRIT OF AMERICA 



CHAPTER XXVII 



PROBLEMS OF TODAY 



468. Proposals for Peace. Long before the war closed 
there was talk in all countries about what might come 
after. Among the Allies it was generally agreed that a 
speech made by President Wilson, called "the speech of 
the Fourteen Points" (January, 191 8), contained the 
main points that would have to be insisted upon. Shortly 
after the armistice a peace conference assembled at Paris. 
The attendance of President Wilson was the first instance 
of an American president's taking part in a conference in 
Europe. 

469. The Treaty of Versailles. So many and so difficult 
were the problems before the peace congress that not until 
the following spring was a treaty drawn up. On June 28, 
1 91 9, the representatives of all the nations involved in the 
World War assembled in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace 
of Versailles and signed a treaty of peace. Among the many 
provisions upon which an agreement was finally reached, 
the following seven were of chief importance. 

525 



52 6 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

1. Alsace and Lorraine, which had been seized by Germany 
in 1 87 1, were restored to France. 

2. Germany was required to pay indemnities to the Allies 
to assist them in discharging the cost of the war. 

3. Austria-Hungary was broken up as an empire. Inde- 
pendent countries remained under the names ''Austria" and 
"Hungary," but a part of their former territory inhabited by 
Italians was given to Italy and another part inhabited by 
Rumanians was given to Rumania. Other parts combined 
to make the new country of Czechoslovakia, and still other 
parts combined with Serbia and Montenegro to form a 
country now known as Jugoslavia. 

4. Parts of Russia, of old Austria, and of Germany were 
united as Poland.^ 

5. Turkey was dismembered, and Armenia was made an 
independent state. 

6. The former German colonies were placed under the 
protection of different countries among the Allies. 

7. A scheme was drawn up for uniting all the Allies — 
and eventually all the world — in a ''League of Nations" to 
prevent future wars. 

470. American Opposition to the Treaty. Signing the treaty 
did not make it effective. It had to be ratified by the gov- 
ernments behind the signers. Without long delay France, 
England, and Germany ratified the treaty, but in the United 
States there was much opposition. This was directed chiefly 
against the scheme for a League of Nations. Enemies of 
the scheme made three objections : (i ) They were afraid that 
if the United States entered a permanent league we might 
have to do things which the rest of the League insisted on, 
but of which we did not approve. (2) They did not like it 
because Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and 
India were in certain respects treated as separate nations 

^The old Polish kingdom was dismembered by Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia over a hundred years ago. 



PROBLEMS OF TODAY 



527 



and given a voice in determining the policy of the League. 
As these countries are included in the British Empire, the 
objection was raised that the Empire, in addition to Great 
Britain's vote in the Council of the League, would have five 
extra votes, while the United States would have only its 
single vote. (3) One article (X) of the 'Covenant," or con- 
stitution, of the League, pledged the members to respect and 




THE PEACE CONGRESS IN THE HALL OF MIRRORS, VERSAILLES ; PREMIER 
CLEMENCEAU OF FRANCE PRESIDING 



preserve against outside attack the boundaries of the various 
countries as laid down on the map of the world by the 
peace conference. Many Americans were unwilling to give 
this pledge ; they felt it was possible that the conference 
had made mistakes and that its map of the world might 
have to be redrawn. 

The friends of the scheme made the following replies : 
I. That all important matters would come before the 
Council of the League. In this Council no decision is bind- 
ing unless all members agree, and therefore, said the believers 



52 8 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

in the League, the United States could always protect itself 
by refusing to make a decision unanimous. 

2. That this principle of unanimity, which was to be 
applied in almost all the legislation of the League, made 
it immaterial how many votes a member might have and 
that in all discussions of policy Canada, Australia, South 
Africa, New Zealand, and India should be represented. 

3. That it was necessary to agree, once for all, on the 
boundaries of all countries in order to prevent further at- 
tempts to seize territory ; this, argued the defenders of the 
Covenant, was the only way to prevent further war. 

The nation quickly divided into four groups, under dis- 
tinguished leaders : ( i ) the uncompromising defenders of the 
Covenant, who would not listen to any proposal of change, 
were led by President Wilson; (2) moderate '^ leaguers," 
who were ready to accept the Covenant as it stood but 
were willing to make changes, — for example, to alter Article 
X, — were led by ex-President Taft, President Lowell of Har- 
vard University, and President Butler of Columbia Uni- 
versity; (3) enemies of the Covenant, who wanted a league 
very different from the one proposed, were led by Senator 
Lodge of ]\Iassachusetts; (4) opponents of the whole plan of 
a league were led by Senator Borah of Idaho and Senator 
Johnson of California. 

47L The Senate rejects the Treaty. Though the President 
of the United States negotiates all our treaties, they are not 
binding until ''ratified" — that is, approved — by the Senate. 
When President Wilson submitted the treaty to the Senate 
a furious debate was started there between its friends and its 
enemies. At length its enemies won. In IMarch, 1920, the 
Senate refused to approve the treaty because it provided for 
a League of Nations ; thereupon President Wilson an- 
nounced that he would submit this question of foreign policy 
to the judgment of the whole country and would ask the 
people to settle the matter at the next presidential election. 



PROBLEMS OF TODAY 



529 



472. The Election of 1920. A most unusual thing now 
occurred. Both Republicans and Democrats chose a presi- 
dential candidate from the same state — Ohio. The Republi- 
cans at their convention in Chicago chose Senator Warren G. 
Harding; the Democrats, in convention at San Francisco, 
Governor James M. Cox. Senator Harding announced him- 
self as opposed to the sort of league described in the treaty, 
but as willing to form some 

association of powers less 
closely knit together. He be- 
lieved that the proposed plan 
would merge the nations — 
the United States with the 
others — into one ''super- 
state." Governor Cox, on the 
other hand, stood for the 
League as it was described in 
the treaty; nevertheless, he 
was willing to accept ''reser- 
vations" which would define 
the rights of the United 
States and make plain that 
in entering the League the 
United States would remain 

an independent sovereign power. The election in November 
was a sweeping victory for the candidate of the Republicans. 

473. The Polish Problem. Many grave problems con- 
fronted the American people in 1920. With one of these 
President WMlson had to deal in the midst of the presidential 
campaign. Though war had ended in western Europe, it 
was still raging in eastern Europe. The unscrupulous Bol- 
shevik government of Russia was at war with the Poles. 
In 1920, Bolshevik armies penetrated to the vicinity of 
W^arsaw. France, England, and Italy were all negotiating 
with Russia in an effort to save Poland ; but in midsummer, 




Baker Art Gallery 
WARREN G. HARDING 



530 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



1920, they were not in complete accord, and it seemed likely 
that while they debated what to do Poland would be de- 
stroyed. At this juncture President Wilson sent a note to 
Italy, intended for all the world, vigorously condemning the 

Bolsheviki and ex- 
pressing the strong 
sympathy of the 
United States for 
Poland. Fortu- 
nately the Poles, 
a few days later, 
gained a great vicr 
tory over the Rus- 
sians. The other 
countries took up 
the cause of Po- 
land with renewed 
vigor. Although 
there was not yet 
a settlement of 
'Hhe Polish prob- 
lem" — that is, of 
how Poland is to be preserved as an independent state — 
the hope of a settlement became brighter. 

474. The Russian Problem. In his note on Poland Presi- 
dent Wilson also stated his attitude toward Russia. What is 
known as ''the Russian problem" is largely the question. 
Shall we recognize as independent powers the various states 
into which the old Russian empire has broken, or shall we 
refuse to do so and wait for them to combine again in a single 
state? During the war President Wilson had refused to 
recognize these states, with the exceptions of Finland and 
Poland, whose people were not Russian and should therefore, 
he thought, be separated from Russia. But as the other 
portions — or, at least, all the important portions — were 




IN POLAND AND IN SOME UlllKK EUROPEAN 

COUNTRIES WOMEN ENLISTED AND FOUGHT AS 

SOLDIERS 



PROBLEMS OF TODAY 531 

inhabited by the great Russian people, he thought that 
it was for the best interest not only of Russia but of the 
world for them all — like the states of the American Union 
— to be united in one great power. 

475. Our Home Problems: Profiteering. Side by side with 
these new problems in our foreign relations, serious problems 
appeared in our affairs at home. One of the most important 
is ''profiteering" — the taking of unjust profits. It is not a 
new thing, but we did not think much about it until the 
World War. Then the enormous profits made by a few con- 
scienceless speculators roused the whole nation to begin 
thinking on the question, What are just profits ? The ques- 
tion became still more serious after the war, when prices rose 
enormously — when a pair of shoes that ten years before 
might have been had for five dollars were sold for twenty, 
and the prices of other necessities rose correspondingly 
high. To enable people to supply their needs at the new 
prices, wages and salaries had to be increased. As explana- 
tion of the numerous strikes of 1919 and 1920 (section 456) 
the same reason was always given : We cannot live on our 
old wages, because the prices of things are ''soaring." Who 
is responsible for these uncertain prices ? Who benefits from 
them? These questions are not yet answered. But they 
point toward one of our most serious problems : the preven- 
tion of these violent fluctuations of prices, with the hardships 
which they cause. 

476. The New Plan for Arbitration. The internal difficul- 
ties of 1919 and 1920 (sections 456, 475) made popular a 
new and peculiar plan for arbitration (sections 378, 380, 
456). It rests upon the idea that all of us are interested in 
all these problems and that all of us should therefore have 
a voice in settling them. Old-fashioned boards of arbitration 
listened merely to the two disputing parties and decided 
which of the two had the better case. A new-fashioned 
arbitration board is now expected to hear the arguments 



532 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of a third party, the general public. To illustrate : the 
thousands upon thousands of people who will suffer if there 
is no coal to be had demand a voice in settling coal disputes ; 
they insist that the mine owners and the mine workers must 
not disregard the interests of the community as a whole but 
must consent to settle their differences with due regard to the 
interests of us all. 

477. The Shipping Problem. In order to carry on easily a 
huge business with foreign countries, America has need of 
many ships. We have seen that once upon a time we had 
such ships of our own (section 283), but during the last 
fifty years most of our exported goods have been carried in 
foreign ships, chiefly British, German, or Norwegian. The 
sailors of these countries were content with lower wages than ' 
were American sailors ; consequently the captain of a ship 
belonging to one of those countries could afford to charge 
lower rates on his freight, and American captains could 
not compete with him. Gradually most American ships had 
given up trying to compete as ''carriers" with foreign 
ships and had gone out of business. When the World War 
came the great bulk of our trade was carried by foreign 
ships. As these were needed by their own countries and ] 
were also likely to be destroyed by enemy warships, the * 
American merchants were deprived of their means of trans- 
portation across the sea. At once Americans began demand- 
ing that we contrive somehow to carry American goods in 
our own ships under our own flag. But how are we to do 

so without either reducing the wages of our sailors lower than 
they will stand or charging such high rates that the mer- 
chants will not pay them ? How to solve this problem is a 
question in everyone's mind today. 

478. The Danger to the Small Dealer and Small Owner 
Today. While the large concerns are doing ''big business," 
thousands of small dealers are finding it harder and harder 
to compete with them. This is due (i) chiefly to what we 



PROBLEMS OF TODAY 



533 



call ''cost of marketing" — that is to say, the large dealer 
who aims to make a great number of sales spends enormous 
sums on advertising. He leaves 
no stone unturned in his effort 
to ''go after" buyers. His 
advertisements sometimes fill 
whole pages in newspapers or 
in magazines. He sends out 
thousands, even millions, of 
handsome calendars that are 
also advertisements. He pays 
high salaries to expert adver- 
tising agents, who spend all 
their time planning new ways 
of catching people's attention 
and enlisting their interest. The 
money paid out in these ways 
forms a large part of the "cost 
of marketing." Small dealers, 
who cannot afford such expen- 
sive advertising, are constantly 
losing customers because of the 
success of the skilled adver- 
tisers in "going after" these 
customers. (2) Furthermore, 
because the small dealer makes 
few sales he needs a larger 
profit in proportion on each 
sale. He is likely, therefore, 
to ask a higher price than the 
large dealer. But if he does 
so, very probably he will 

drive his customers away and perhaps ruin his business. 

One of the great problems of our day is how to help 

the small dealers, mechanics who own their own businesses, 




LOOKING UP BROADWAY, NEW 
YORK, FROM BOWLING GREEN 

Compare the picture of Bowling 
Green on page 72 



534 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and farmers to continue prosperous. We want to do so 
because every man or woman who owns his or her busi- 
ness feels independent and therefore is not afraid to say and 
do what he or she thinks is right. A great number of pros- 
perous small dealers, men and women owning their own 
businesses, will help immensely in preserving democracy. In 
fact, the new danger for democracy, unforeseen in 1830 
(section 265), is in this very problem. Should they all give 
up trying to carry on business for themselves, should they 
all become clerks or hire themselves to ''big business," 
many of them would lose their fearless independence of 
character and would incline to think and vote as their em- 
ployers desired. A large number of men and women owning 
their businesses is almost if not quite necessary to preserve 
a democratic form of government. 

479. The Problem of the New Sort of Immigrant. One 
result of the World War was to give us all a new pride in our 
country, a new enthusiasm for American ideals. This leads 
us to look about us at home to see whether all our people 
are loyal Americans. In doing so we find that something has 
happened during the past thirty years which hitherto most 
of us have overlooked. Until about thirty years ago the 
foreigners who came to us were either from free countries 
(sections 280, 288) or from countries where there was an 
intelligent desire to be free. They fitted easily into our Amer- 
ican life. But we have seen that the year 1890 marked a 
change in American conditions (section 467). Since then 
the bulk of our immigrants have come from old, oppressed 
countries and have no adequate idea what democracy is. 
Often they have been induced to emigrate by the unscrupu- 
lous agents of steamship companies, who have told them all 
sorts of impossible stories about how they would become 
wealthy almost as soon as they reached America. Hosts of 
such people, after giving up all their savings to pay their 
passage to America, find themselves alone, friendless and 



PROBLEMS OF TODAY 



S3S 



penniless in a strange country whose language they cannot 
speak. There is nothing for them to do but to accept the 
least desirable sort of work or to starve. They drift to- 
gether and form dense groups of foreign population where 
their life is even harder than it was at home. There are 




Brown Bros. 



SLUM CHILDREN 
Children of (he city slums often have no playground but the sidewalks 

two sorts of these islands of unhappy foreigners: the 
^^ slums" of large cities and the factory population in certain 
industrial centers. 

480. The Problem of Conservation : Soil and Fuel. We 
have many problems that all make up the one great problem 
of conservation (sections 383, 400). For example, the reck- 
less lumbering in many parts of the country has destroyed 
millions of small trees that should have been allowed to 
stand and grow. It has swept the woodlands bare, permitting 
the rain to wash away the rich upper soil. Furthermore, 
unscientific farming, planting the same crop too often, has 
frequently reduced the strength of the soil for agricultural 



536 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

purposes. Large areas have to be replanted with trees so as 
to prevent washing of the soil, and the soil itself has to 
be treated with fertilizers that will restore its strength. 
A national association called the Farm Bureau cooperates 
with the government for the purpose of improving our soil. 
We have also a fuel problem. Our coal and oil are being 
consumed with great rapidity, and scientists are taking 



''*! 






-n;^ 




^»— i ^-— ..".:, ■..-•-•r- I rrir/uT. ^ 




THE KEOKUK DAM 



By means of this great dam the rapids of the Mississippi have been utilized 
for generating electricity that is communicated over wires to many cities of 

the central West 



thought as to how they can be economized. It is proposed 
to use coal less and to use electricity more, since electricity 
can be generated in large dynamos run by water power. 
In many parts of the country attempts are being made in 
this direction. This use for water power gives new signifi- 
cance to the fall line (map, p. 396). 

481. The Problem of the Great Cities : Cleaning the Slums. 
Fifty years ago even the largest American city was still rela- 
tively a small town. In those days the vast area of free 
Western land (sections 289, 362) acted like a great pump, 
drawing a human stream toward the West and sprinkling it 



PROBLEMS OF TODAY 



537 



over the earth. But nowadays the American people do not 
move about as once they did. They tend more and more to 
remain where they grew up. All sections of the country 
have great cities that number their population by the hun- 
dreds of thousands or even by the million. In many of these 
cities discouraged foreigners, who can barely make a living, 
are crowded into the 
slums, where they lead 
a life of extreme pov- 
erty. Their pitiful con- 
dition is relieved to 
some degree by the 
devoted residents of 
settlement houses (sec- 
tion 462), but no one 
has yet found a way to 
transform the slums. 

However, a great 
deal is being done. 
First of all the city 
authorities, with the 
help of the state and 
national authorities, are laboring to clean the slums. This 
must be done, because the dense crowds of people packed 
together in dirty and unsanitary houses breed disease. From 
the slums epidemics start and sweep over the country ; 
therefore every city has its department of health in which 
trained physicians are endeavoring to prevent disease. 

482. The Problem of the Factory Towns : Immigrant Edu- 
cation. Few problems are more serious than how to educate 
the crowds of recent immigrants who have gathered in dense 
settlements in our factory towns. The growth of these huge 
groups of non-English-speaking foreigners may be seen by 
examining the census during the past fifty years. In 1870, in 
the anthracite-coal region of Pennsylvania, 105,000 laborers 




A FREE CLINIC 



538 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



spoke English, while only 306 did not. In 1910, in the 
same region, the number of English-speaking laborers had 
shrunk to 82,000, while the laborers that did not speak Eng- 
lish at all, or with difficulty, numbered 177,803. Our new 
enthusiasm for our country aroused by the war is leading 
us to demand that all these ignorant, unhappy people shall 
be educated and changed into contented American citizens. 

For that pur- 
pose ( I ) night 
schools give in- 
struction to the 
grown men and 
women. Some- 
times the town 
pays for these 
schools ; some- 
times they are 
supported by the 
churches or by 
patriotic socie- 
ties or by gener- 
ous individuals. Some of the best are maintained by owners of 
the factories. ( 2 ) The laws of most states make it compulsory 
for children to attend school ; therefore the children of the im- 
migrant factory workers are required to receive the same edu- 
cation, broadly speaking, that American children receive. 
They learn the English language, study American history, 
learn what democracy is and what it means to be a free 
American citizen. (3) Nothing is more important in making 
good Americans of these foreign children than the sports 
which they learn at school. In a boys' football team or a 
girls' basket-ball team some of the most precious American 
ideals are put into practice. Perhaps the most important is 
the idea that everyone shall have equal opportunity. When 
a school captain picks out his football team he does not ask 




FIGHTING FIRE IN A MODERN CITY 



PROBLEMS OF TODAY 



539 



whether a boy's father is rich or poor, native or foreign. He 
asks if he can play the game. If he finds the boy is better 
fitted than anyone else for a certain position, he puts him on 
the team. Many a time, in a factory town, the boy who is 




AN INTERCOLLEGIATE FOOTBALL GAME IN A MODERN STADIUM 



thus chosen comes of an immigrant family whose mem- 
bers are just beginning to realize that they are Americans. 
483. The Crisis of Democracy. All these imperative prob- 
lems of today, both in foreign affairs and in home affairs, 
are of absorbing interest because directly or indirectly they 
affect the preservation of democracy. Abroad our great con- 
cern is to be on friendly and sympathetic terms with all na- 
tions, but especially those that are truly democratic. At home 
what thinking Americans want most of all is to persuade 



540 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



all our people, whether rich or poor, that their first duty is to 
consider the country as a whole, to take thought for the good 
of us all, not merely for their own selfish interest. But how 
is our patriotism going to unite all our people in one brother- 
hood ? How shall we strengthen in them all the true Ameri- 
can spirit — that just and liberal temper, that generous 



^^^^H 
^^^^^^H 

^■^^H 


i]."^,:-lH 


1 


J 


y i " -;;%^ 




• flfi 


**7 





© Brown Bros. 
AVOMEN WORKERS ARE BECOMING MORE THAN EVER A VITAL FACTOR IN 
WAR AND PEACE. THESE WOMEN ARE MARCHING IN A RED-CROSS PARADE 
IN NEW YORK CITY 

feeling for one another, that fearless independence, without 
which a genuine republican government is impossible? 

The answer is not far to seek. All American history is 
the valiant pursuit of a great hope. Beginning with the first 
colonists, who in Elizabeth's time defied Spain and came to 
Roanoke (section i8), Americans have marched onward, 
generation after generation, faithful to the idea that what 
they believed in they could accomplish. First we believed 
we could take possession of this vast land and make it our 
own. And we did so. Almost from the beginning we had 
the belief that we could build a free state in which all the old 
worn-out monarchical customs should be discarded. And in 



PROBLEMS OF TODAY 541 

this also we succeeded. Behind those two great achieve- 
ments lay a deep conviction that has often been put into 
words and of v/hich we are growing more and more conscious 
day by day. It is the conviction that God intends mankind 
to be happy, that all customs which keep men and women 
from achieving happiness are at bottom wrong and must 
somehow, sooner or later, be remedied. Because Americans 
are becoming steadily more conscious that this idea is their 
deepest inspiration, and because they know how irresistibly 
they work out whatever they really believe in, we are taking 
up these new problems of democracy unafraid. An AmxCri- 
can poet expressed the fundamental faith of his countrymen 
in the line ''I only know that God is good and every wrong 
shall die." 

SUMMARY 

The treaty of peace rearranged the map of Europe and provided 
for a League of Nations. Rather than accept the League without 
change, the Senate rejected the treaty, which became the issue of 
the presidential campaign. Warren G. Harding, the R.epublican 
nominee, who stood for modification of the League, was elected. 

During the summer of 1920 President Wilson was active in 
rousing a new desire to see Poland hold its own against Russia, and 
also announced, as American policy, the desire to see the Bolshe- 
viki defeated and the fragments of the old Russian Empire reunited 
in one great democracy. 

The profiteering that went on during the war has led us to see 
that one of our problems today is how to prevent unscrupulous 
profits. There is a new demand to permit the whole public to take 
part in the settlement of industrial disputes. 

A problem of today is the creation of an American merchant 
marine. One of the dangers of today is the possible destruction 
of the small business concerns because of the cost of marketing. 

Perhaps our greatest problem is the Americanization of those 
recent immigrants who have drifted together in large numbers in 
the slums of our great cities and in our manufacturing towns. 

The World War aroused in us all a new faith in democracy and 
a new enthusiasm to make it successful in our own country. 



542 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

AIDS TO STUDY 

On the treaty of peace and the League of Nations : Bogart, The 
Direct and Indirect Costs of the Great H or/d W^ar; Butler, /s America 
worth Sa7'ing\ Dillox, The Inside History of the Peace Conference; 
DuGGAX, The League of \ations\ * Seymour, U'oodrow Wilson and the 
Great IVar. Many valuable pamphlets are distributed for the nominal 
subscription of 25 cents a year by the American Association of International 
Conciliation (407 West 1 17th Street, New York City); Pamphlet iXo. 142 
contains the full text of the treaty of peace. For the same annual subscrip- 
tion the World Peace Foundation (40 Mt. Vernon Street, Boston) distributes 
bimonthly pamphlets, many of which are extremely useful ; for example, 
Pamphlet N^o. 2, April, 19 19, Joint Debate on the Covenant of Paris 
(League of Nations), by Henry Cabot Lodge and A. Lawrence Lowell. 

American foreign policy since the armistice: American Year Book; 
Ciir?ent History; Haves, A Brief History of the Great Jtar, chap, xv; 
the Independent ; International Year Book ; Literary Digest ; the Out- 
look ; Sev.mour, Woodrow Wilson and the Great War. 

The problems that are following upon the return of peace, both internal 
and external, are so close to us that it is very hard to get information about 
them in compact form. The yearbooks and the chronological reviews in 
the magazines are the most practical sources. The Sun'ey should be 
included in the magazine list for economic problems. Four volumes of the 
Chronicles of America contribute much that will assist in a general summing 
up of the problems of 1920: XXXIX, The Age of Big Business; XL, 
The A rmies of Labor; X L I , The Masters of Capital ; X L V 1 1 1 , / / 'oodrow 
Wilson and the Great H^ar. Timely, in the face of Bolshevism, is Brooks, 
American Syndicalism, and also Go.mpers, American Labor. An admi- 
rable brief statement of the problems of peace is in Muzzev, An Ameri- 
can History (revised edition), 524-536. There could be no more satisfac- 
tory review of our country's situation in 1920 than a reading of the whole 
of the small volume of Becker, *The i/nited States, an Experiment in 
Democracy. 

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS 

I. What speech was made the basis of the discussions in the peace 
conference? 2. What were the chief provisions of the peace treaty? 
3. What governments speedily ratified the treaty? 4. Why did the 
United States act more slowly than England, France, and Germany? 
5. How did the treaty become the issue of the presidential campaign? 

[6. Explain what you mean by "superstate." What would the 
world be like if all governments were combined in one superstate? 



PROBLEMS OF TODAY 



543 



What would be the difference between that condition and a world- 
wide partnership among nations to preserve peace? The teacher 
will probably find the specific issues of the League dispute too difficult 
for the pupil, but the two general ideas suggested above could be 
made clear: (i) an international government under which ours would 
have about the position of a state in our Union; (2) a loose but 
permanent alliance in which the various countries would all have to 
agree upon anything they proposed to do in common. A further prob- 
lem would consist in finding these two ideas in earher American his- 
tory. Which was illustrated by the old Confederation? Which did 
Calhoun beheve in? What did Webster think? (See sections 193, 
243, 244, 246, also Duggan, A League of Nations ; Lodge and Lowell, 
Joint Debate on the League of Nations ; Seymour, Woodrow Wilson 
and the Great War.)'] 

7. Explain the Polish problem. 8. Explain the Russian problem. 
[9. Write a story of a boy or girl who in some way "profiteers." 
Suggest some means by which the indignation of the other boys and 
girls could put a stop to profiteering. Here is an opportunity for 
the teacher to bring a historical issue close home to the lives of 
children. The remedies suggested by the pupils will reveal the un- 
suspected germs of the world's political theories. Some pupils will 
want constitutional remedies, others mob law ; some will reason as 
individuahsts, others as sociahsts. ] [10. What would America be like 
if it had no independent small dealers ? Describe a presidential 
election in a country where all business was done by a few great 
corporations with armies of employees.] 11. What is the problem of 
Americanization? 




APPENDIX 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE^ 

In Congress, July 4, 1776 

A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED 
STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and 
to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to 
which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect 
to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes 
which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : — That all men are created equal ; 
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that 
among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure 
these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just 
powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of gov- 
ernment becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to 
alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation 
on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall 
seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will 
dictate, that governments long established should not be changed for light 
and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown that man- 
kind are more disposed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right 
themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when 
a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, 
it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for 
their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies ; 
and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former 
systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is 

1 The original copy of the Declaration of Independence is kept in the Department 
of State in Washington. The Declaration was adopted July 4, 1776, and was signed by 
the members representing the thirteen states August 2, 1776. John Hancock, whose 
name appears first among the signers, was president of the Congress, 



ii SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the 
establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let 
facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for 
the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing 
importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be 
obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts 
of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in 
the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, 
and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose 
of fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly 
firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to 
be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have 
returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in 
the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without, and 
convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that 
purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to 
pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of 
new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to 
laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the 
consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the 
civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our 
constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their 
acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders 
which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE iii 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, 
establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so 
as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same 
absolute rule into these colonies ; 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, 
fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, 
and waging war against us. 

He has plundered, our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at. this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com- 
plete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circum- 
stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, 
and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to 
bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends 
and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited dohriestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to 
bring on 'the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian sayages, whose 
known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, 
and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the 
most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by 
repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which 
may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We 
have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of 
the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed 
to their native justice and magnanimity ; and we have conjured them, by the 
ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would 
inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have 
been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, 
acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our^ separation, and hold them, 
as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in 
General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
for the rectitude ot our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of 
the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these 
united Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; 
that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all 



iv SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought 
to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have 
full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, 
and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. 
And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection 
of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, 
and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed 
by the following members : 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 

JOSIAH B.A.RTLETT 

\ViLLiAM Whipple 
M.vrxHEW Thornton 

MASSACHUSETTS BAV 

Samuel Adams 
John Adams 
Robert Treat Paine 
Elbridge Gerry 

RHODE ISLAND 

Stephen Hopkins 
William Ellery 

CONNECTICUT 

Roger Sherman 
Samuel Huntington 
William Williams 
Oliver Wolcott 

NEW YORK 

William Floyd 
Philip Livingston 
Francis Lewis 
Lewis Morris 



JOHN HANCOCK 

NEW JERSEY 

Richard Stockton 
John Witherspoon 
Francis IIopkinson 
John Hart 
Abraham Clark 

PENNSYLVANIA 
Robert Morris 
Benjamin Rush 
Benjamin Franklin 
John Morton 
George Cly.mer 
James Smith 
George Taylor 
James Wilson 
George Ross 

DELAWARE 
C.^sar Rodney 
George Read 
Thomas M'Kean 

MARYLAND 
Sa.muel Chase 
William Paca 
Thomas Stone 



Charles Carroll, of 
Carrollton 

VIRGINIA 
George Wythe 
Richard Henry Lee 
Thomas Jefferson 
Benjamin Harriso.n 
Thomas Nelson, Jr. 
Francis Lightfoot Lee 
Carter Braxton 

NORTH CAROLINA 
W^illiam Hooper 
Joseph Hewes 
John Penn 

SOUTH CAROLINA 
Edward Rutledge 
Thomas Hayward, Jr. 
Thomas Lynch, Jr. 
Arthur Middleton 

GEORGIA 

Button Gwinnett 
Lyman Hall 
George Walton 



Resolved, That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, 
conventions, and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several com- 
manding officers of the continental troops ; that it be proclaimed in each of 
the United States, at the head of the army. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Preamble 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, 
establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, 
promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves 
and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United 
States of America. 

ARTICLE I. LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 

Section i. Congress 

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the 
United States, which shall consist of a Senate and Mouse of Representatives.^ 

Section 2. House of Representatives 

Election of Members. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and 
the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors 
of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

Qualifications. No person shall be a representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of 
the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that 
State in which he shall be chosen. 

Apportionment. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their 
respective numbers,^ which shall be determined by adding to the whole num- 
ber of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and 
excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.^ The actual 

1 The term of each Congress is two years. It assembles on the first Monday in 
December and " expires at noon of the fourth of March next succeeding the beginning 
of its second regular session, when a new Congress begins." 

2 The apportionment under the census of 1910 is one representative for every 212,407 
persons. 

3 The word " persons " refers to slaves. The word " slave " nowhere appears in the 
Constitution. This paragraph has been amended (Amendments XIII and XIV) and 
is no longer in force. 



vi SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the 
Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 
years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of repre- 
sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State 
shall have at least one representative : and until such enumeration shall be 
made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massa- 
chusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, 
five; New York, six ; New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one ; 
Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; 
and Georgia, three. 

Vacancies. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the 
executive authority ^ thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

Officers. Impeachment. The House of Representatives shall choose their 
Speaker^ and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Section 3. Senate 

Number of Senators : Election. The Senate of the United States shall be 
composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, 
for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. [Repealed in 1913 by 
Amendment XVII.] 

Classification. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. 
The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration 
of the second year ; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; 
of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be 
chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or other- 
wise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive ' thereof 
may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, 
which shall then fill such vacancies. 

Qualifications. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to 
the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he 
shall be chosen. 

President of Senate. The Vice-President of the United States shall be presi- 
dent of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

Officers. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president 
pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise 
the office of President of the United States. 

Trials of Impeachment. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all im- 
peachments : When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 

J Governor. 

2 The Speaker, who presides, is one of the representatives ; the other officers — clerk, 
sergeant-at-arms, postmaster, chaplain, doorkeeper, etc. — are not. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES vii 

When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief-Justice shall 
preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two- 
thirds of the members present. 

Judgment in Case of Conviction. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall 
not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold 
ind enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the 
party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
udgment, and punishment, according to law. 

Section 4. Both Houses 

Manner of electing Members. The times, places, and manner of holding elec- 
;ions for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by 
;he Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or 
liter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.^ 

Meetings of Congress. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every 
^ear, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
shall by law appoint a different day. 

Section 5. The Houses separately 

Organization. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a 
quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, 
md may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such 
Banner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. 

Rules. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
nembers for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, 
ixpel a member. 

Journal. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to 
:ime publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require 
iecrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question 
>hall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

Adjournment. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without 
;he consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

Section 6. Privileges and Disabilities of Members 

Pay and Privileges of Members. The senators and representatives shall 
receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid 
Dut of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except 
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 

1 This is to prevent Congress from fixing the places of meeting of the state legislatures. 



viii SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they 
shall not be questioned in any other place. 

Prohibitions on Members. No senator or representative shall, during the 
time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the au- 
thority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments 
whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no person holding 
any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during 
his continuance in office. 

Section 7. Method of passing Laws 

Revenue Bills. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as 
on other bills. 

How Bills become Laws. Every bill which shall have passed the House of 
Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented 
to the President of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if 
not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have 
originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and pro- 
ceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house 
shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the 
other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by 
two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes 
of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the 
persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each 
house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within 
ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the 
same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress 
by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Resolutions, etc. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence 
of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United 
States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or 
being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed 
in the case of a bill. 

Section 8. Powers granted to Congress 

Powers of Congress. The Congress shall have power : 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and 
provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States ; but 
all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ix 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, 
and with the Indian tribes ; 

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the 
subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the 
standard of weights and measures ; 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current 
coin of the United States ; 

To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited 
times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings 
and discoveries ; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, 
and offenses against the law of nations ; 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, ^ and make rules con- 
cerning captures on land and water ; 

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use 
shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

To provide and maintain a navy ; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval 
forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, 
suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for gov- 
erning such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United 
States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, 
and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed 
by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district 
(not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and 
the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United 
States,^ and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the con- 
sent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection 
of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; — And 

Implied Powers. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by 
this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department 
or officer thereof.^ 

^ Letters granted by the government to private citizens in time of war, authorizing 
them, under certain conditions, to capture the ships of the enemy. 
2 The District of Columbia. 
8 This is the famous elastic clause of the Constitution. 



X SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Section' 9. Powers forbidden- to the United States 

Absolute Prohibitions on Congress. The migration or importation of such 
persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall 
not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hun- 
dred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each person. ^ 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus - shall not be suspended, unless 
when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 

No bill of attainder 3 or ex-post-facto law* shall be passed. 

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the 
census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to 
the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, or 
from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appro- 
priations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts 
and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no person 
holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of 
the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind 
whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 



Section 10. Powers forbidden to the States 

Absolute Prohibitions on the States. No State shall enter into any treaty, 
alliance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; 
emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in pay- 
ment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impairing 
the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

Conditional Prohibitions on the States. No State shall, without the consent 
of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what 
may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net 
produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, 

1 This refers to the foreign slave trade. "Persons" means "slaves." In 1808 
Congress prohibited the importation of slaves. This clause is, of course, no longer 
in force. 

2 An official document requiring an accused person who is in prison awaiting trial to 
be brought into court to inquire whether he may be legally held. 

8 A special legislative act by which a person may be condemned to death or to out- 
lawry or banishment without the opportunity of defending himself which he would have 
in a court of law. 

* A law relating to the punishment of acts committed before the law was passed. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xi 

shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws 
shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, 
keep troops, or ships-of-war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or 
compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless 
actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 



ARTICLE II. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 
Section i. President and Vice-President 

Term. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United 
States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, 
together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as 
follows : 

Electors. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and 
representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no 
senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under 
the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

Proceedings of Electors and of Congress. [^ The electors shall meet in their 
respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall 
make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; 
which list they shall sign and certify and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. 
The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House 
of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the Presi- 
dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal 
number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose 
by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then 
from the five highest on the list the said house shall, in like manner, choose 
the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by 
States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for 
this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In 
every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest 
number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there 
should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose 
from them by ballot the Vice-President.] 

1 This paragraph in brackets has been superseded by the Twelfth Amendment. 



xii SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Time of choosing Electors. The Congress may determine the time of choos- 
ing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day 
shall be the same throughout the United States.^ 

Qualifications of President. No person except a natural born citizen, or a 
citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, 
shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible 
to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
been fourteen years resident within the United States. 

Vacancy. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may 
by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both 
of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as 
President ; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be 
removed, or a President shall be elected. - 

Salary. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period 
for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that 
period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

Oath. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will 
faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the 
best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United 
States." 

Section 2. Powers of the President 

Military Powers ; Reprieves and Pardons. The President shall be commander- 
in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the 
• several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he 
may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the ex- 
ecutive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses 
against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

Treaties; Appointments. lie shall have power, by and with the advice and 
consent of the .Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators 
present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and con- 
sent of the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United 

1 The electors are chosen on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in November, 
preceding the expiration of a presidential term. They vote (by Act of Congress of Feb- 
ruary 3, 1887) on the second Monday in January for President and \'ice-President. 
The votes are counted, and declared in Congress on the second Wednesday of the 
following Februar>\ 

2 This has now been provided for by the Presidential Succession Act of iSS6. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xiii 

States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which 
shall be established by law : but the Congress may by law vest the appoint- 
ment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in 
the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

Filling of Vacancies. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies 
that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions 
which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section 3. Duties of the President 

Message ; Convening of Congress. He shall from time to time give to the 
Congress information ^ of the state of the Union, and recommend to their con- 
sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, 
on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in 
case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive 
ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be 
faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

Section 4. Impeachment 

Removal of Officers. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and 
conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 

Section i. United States Courts 

Courts established ; Judges. The judicial power of the United States shall 
be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress 
may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at 
stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be 
diminished during their continuance in office. 

Section 2. Jurisdiction of United States Courts 

Federal Courts in General. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in 
law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; — to all cases 

1 The president gives this information through a message to Congress at the open- 
ing of each session. Washington and John Adams read their messages in person to 
Congress. Jefferson, however, sent a written message to Congress. This method was 
followed until President Wilson returned to the earlier custom. 



xiv SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; — to all cases of 
admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; — to controversies to which the United 
States shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States; — 
between a State and citizens of another State ; ' — between citizens of different 
States; — between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of 
different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, 
citizens or subjects. 

Supreme Court. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all other cases before mentioned, the 
Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with 
such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 

Trials. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have 
been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be 
at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

Section' 3. Treason 

Treason defined. Treason against the United States shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid 
and comfort. 

No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two 
witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

Punishment. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, 
except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. RELATIONS OF THE STATES TO EACH OTHER 
Section i. Official Acts 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, 
and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by gen- 
eral laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings 
shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Section 2. Privileges of Citizens 

The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities 
of citizens in the several States. 

Fugitives from Justice. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, 
or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 

1 This has been modified by the Eleventh Amendment. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xv 

shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he 
fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of 
the crime. 

Fugitive Slaves. No person ^ held to service or labor in one State, under 
the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or 
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be 
delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 



Section 3. New States and Territories 

Admission of States. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction 
of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more 
States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the 
States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

Territory and Property of United States. The Congress shall have power to 
dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory 
or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Con- 
stitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, 
or of any particular State. 



Section 4. Protection of the States 

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican 
form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on 
application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature 
cannot be convened) against domestic violence. 



ARTICLE V. AMENDMENTS 

How proposed; how ratified. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both 
houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitu- 
tion, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several 
States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either 
case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, 
when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by 
conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratifica- 
tion may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amendment which 

1 " Person " here includes slave. This was the basis of the Fugitive Slave Laws of 
1793 and 1850. It is now superseded by the Thirteenth Amendment, by which slavery 
is prohibited. 



xvi SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in 
any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first 
article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal 
suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. GENERAL PROVISIONS 

Public Debt. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before 
the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States 
under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

Supremacy of Constitution. This Constitution, and the laws of the United 
States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or 
which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the 
supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound 
thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary 
notwithstanding. 

Official Oath ; Religious Test. The senators and representatives before men- 
tioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive 
and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall 
be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious 
test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under 
the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 

Ratification. The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be 
sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so 
ratifying the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the 
seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names.* 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
President, and Deputy front Virginia. 

1 There were sixty-five delegates chosen to the convention : ten did not attend ; six- 
teen declined or failed to sign ; thirty-nine signed. Rhode Island sent no delegates. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xvii 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 

John Langdon 
Nicholas Oilman 

MASSACHUSETTS 

Nathaniel Gorham 
RuFus King 

CONNECTICUT 

William Samuel Johnson 
Roger SheRxMan 

NEW YORK 
Alexander Hamilton 

NEW JERSEY 

William Livingston 
David Brearley 
William Paterson 
Jonathan Dayton 



PENNSYLVANIA 

Benjamin Franklin 
Thomas Mifflin 
Robert Morris 
George Clymer 
Thomas Fitzsimons 
Jared Ingersoll 
James Wilson 
gouverneur morris 



VIRGINIA 

John Blair 
James Madison, Jr. 



NORTH CAROLINA 

William Blount 
Richard Dobbs Spaight 
Hugh Williamson 



DELAWARE 
George Read 
Gunning Bedford, Jr. 
John Dickinson 
Richard Bassett 
Jacob Broom 

MARYLAND 
James M'Henry 
Daniel of St. Thomas 

Jenifer William Few 

Daniel Carroll Abraham Baldwin 

Attest: WILLIAM lk.QVJS>0^, Secretary 



SOUTH CAROLINA 

John Rutledge 
Charles C. Pinckney 
Charles Pinckney 
Pierce Butler 



GEORGIA 



AMENDMENTS 

Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly, Petition. Article \y Congress shall 
make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free 
exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the 
right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for 
redress of grievances. 

Militia. Article II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security 
of a free State the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
infringed. 

Soldiers. Article III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in 
any house, without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war but in a 
manner to be prescribed by law. 

Unreasonable Searches. Article IV. The right of the people to be secure 
in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches 
and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon 

1 These amendments were proposed by Congress and ratified by the legislatures of 
the several states, pursuant to the fifth article of the Constitution. The first ten were 
offered in 17S9 and adopted before the close of 1791. They were for the most part the 
work of Madison. They are frequently called the Bill of Rights, as their purpose is to 
guard more efficiently the rights of the people and of the states. 



xviii SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing 
the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

Criminal Prosecutions. Article V. No person shall be held to answer for 
a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment 
of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any 
person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or 
limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against him- 
self, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; 
nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the 
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been 
previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of 
the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have 
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the 
assistance of counsel for his defense. 

Suits at Common Law. Article VII. In suits at common law, where the 
value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollais, the right of trial by jury shall 
be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any 
court of the United States than according to the rules of common law. 

Bail, Punishments. Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, 
nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Reserved Rights and Powers. Article IX. The enumeration in the Con- 
stitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others 
retained by the people. 

Article X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Consti- 
tution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 

Suits against States. Article XI.^ The judicial power of the United 
States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced 
or prosecuted against any of the United States by citizens of another State, or 
by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 

Method of electing President and Vice-President. Article XI I." The electors 
shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and 
Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for 
as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President; 
and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of 
all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, 
which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate; — 

1 Proposed in 1794 ; adopted in 179S. 2 Adopted in 1S04, 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xix 

the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of 
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; 
— the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having 
the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as 
President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, 
the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by 
States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for 
this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the 
House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of 
choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, 
then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or 
other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest 
number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have 
a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds 
of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office 
of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

Slavery abolished. Article XIII.^ Section i. Neither slavery nor involun- 
tary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall 
have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place 
subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 

Negroes made Citizens. Article XIV.2 Section i. All persons born or 
naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are 
citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State 
shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immuni- 
ties of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person 
of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person 
within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Sectio7i 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons 
in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any 
election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the 
United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers 
of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the 
male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of 

1 Adopted in 1S65. ' Adopted in 1868. 



XX SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebel- 
lion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the 
proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole 
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section J. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or 
elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, 
under the United States, or under any State, who having previously taken an 
oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a 
member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any 
State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in 
insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the 
enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, 
remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized 
by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for 
services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. 
But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or 
obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United 
States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such 
debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legis- 
lation, the provisions of this article. 

Negroes made Voters. Article XV.^ Section i. The rights of citizens of the 
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or 
by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

Income Tax. Article XVI.^ The Congress shall have power to lay and col- 
lect taxes on incomes from whatever source derived, without apportionment 
among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

Article XVII.- The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof for six years ; 
and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have 
the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
State Legislatures. 

Direct Election of Senators. When vacancies happen in the representation 
of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue 
writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided, that the Legislature of any 
State may empower the Executive thereof to make temporary appointments 
until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term 
of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. 

1 Adopted in 1870, 2 Ratified in 1913. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxi 

National Prohibition. Article XVIII.i Section i. After one year from the 
ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicat- 
ing liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof 
from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for 
beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. 

Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power 
to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Section j. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been rati- 
fied as an amendment to the Constitution by the Legislatures of the several 
States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the 
submission hereof to the States by the Congress. 

Woman Suffrage. Article XIX. ^ Section i. The right of citizens of the 
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or 
by any State on account of sex. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power, by appropriate legislation, to enforce 
the provisions of this article. 

1 Ratified in 1919. 2 Ratified in 1920. 



xxii SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 



1492. Columbus discovers America (§ 9). 
1497. Cabot discovers the continent of North 

America (§ 16). 
1507. America named (§ 11). 
1522. First circumnavigation of the globe 

(§■2). 
1541. Discovery of the Mississippi (§ 14). 
1558. Accession of Queen Elizabeth (§ 17). 
1565. Spaniards found St. Augustine (§ 14). 
1572. Drake claims California for England 

(§ >7). 

1585. English colonization begun at Roanoke 

(§ 18). 
1588. Defeat of the Invincible Armada (§ 19). 

1607. Permanent English colonization of Vir- 

ginia (§25). 

1608. French settle Quebec (§ 101). 

1619. Representative government established 

in Virginia (§32). 

1620. The Pilgrims settle Plymouth (§44). 
1626. Purchase of Manhattan Island (§64). 
1630. The Puritans settle Boston (§50). 

1634. Religious freedom for all Christians in 

Marj'land (§ 36). 

1635. Public schools begun (§80). 

1636. Entire religious toleration in Rhode 

Island (§58). 
1636. Harvard College founded (§ 53). 

1642. Civil war in England (§ 40). 

1643. New England Confederation (§81). 
1649. Act of Toleration in Maryland (§39). 
1664. English conquest of New Netherland 

(§69). 
1670. Carolina begun (§ 79). 

1681. Charter of Pennsylvania (§75). 

1682. La Salle explores the Mississippi (§ 105). 

1688. Revolution in England. James II ex- 

pelled (§ 109). 

1689. English Act of Toleration (§98). 
1689-1763. Wars for existence (§ 113). 
1704. First newspaper established (§ 129). 
1704. Dcerfield. Defense of the Northagainst 

the French (§ 1 13). 
1733. Georgia founded (§ 84). 
1742. Frederica. Defense of the South against 

the Spaniards (§ 1 16). 
1754. (ireat Meadows (§ 119). 
1763. Treaty of Peace with France (§ 123). 
1765. The Stamp Act (§ 142). 

1773. The colonists destroy taxed tea (§ 145). 

1774. First Continental Congress (§ 147). 

1775. Lexington and Concord (§ 149). 

1776. Declaration of Independence (§ 156). 

1777. Purgoyne's surrender (§ 165). 

1778. The French alliance (§ 167). 

1779. Surrender of Vincennes (§ 171). 

1780. King's Mountain (§ 180). 

1781. Surrender of Comwallis (§ 183). 
1781. Articles of Confederation (§ 185). 
1783. Treaty of Peace (§ 184). 

1787. The Northwest Ordinance (§ 185). 
1787. The Constitution adopted (§ 194). 

1789. Washington president (§ 197). 

1790. The first census (§ 204). 



1792. Claim to Oregon (§272). 

1 793. Proclamation of neutrality (§ 200). 
1793. Invention of the cotton gin (§ 209). 
1795. Jay's Treaty (§ 202). 

1803. Purchase of Louisiana (§220). 
1807. The first steamboat (§ 221). 

1811. The National Road begun (§ 236). 

1812. War with England (§ 228). 

1819. Purchase of Florida (§ 234). 

1820. The .Missouri Compromise (§ 235). 
1823. The Monroe Doctrine (§233). 
1825. The Erie Canal opened (§ 238). 

1830. The first passenger railway (§ 252). 

1831. The Liberator published (§258). 

1832. Nullification in South Carolina (§ 247). 

1832. First national party convention {§264). 

1833. Chicago founded (§ 251). 

1833. Coeducation (§ 256). 

1834. McCormick reaper (§ 255). 

1836. First college exclusively for women 

(§ -'.s&). 
1838. !• irst steamship line to Europe (§ 221). 
1842. Manhood suffrage (§ 257). 

1844. First telegraph line opened (§ 282). 

1845. Annexation of Texas (§ 271). 

1846. Oregon (§273). 
1846. Sewing machine (§ 282). 
1846. Ether comes into use (§ 287). 
1846-1848. The Mexican War (§ 274). 
1848. Discovery of gold in California (§ 278). 
1848. Mexican land cessions (§ 277). 
1850. Compromise on slavery (§ 279). 
1854. Kansas- Nebraska .Act (§ 298). 
1857. The Ured Scott case (§ 302). 

1860. Secession (§ 30^)). 

1861. Lincoln president (§ 305). 
1861. Fort Sumter (§ 30-8). 

1863. National banks established (§311). 
1863. Emancipation Proclamation (§ 334). 
1863. Battles of Gettysburg and Vicksburg 

(§§32'''. 336). 
1865. Appomattox (§34s). 
1867. Reconstruction Act (§ 351). 
1867. Purchase of .Alaska (§ 357). 
1869. First railway to the Pacific (§361). , 
1869. Woman suffrage in Wyoming (§ 463). 
1883. Civil service reform (§ 376). 
1890. -Admission of Wyoming with full wo 

man suffrage (§ 463). 
1898. War with Spain (§ 387). 
1898. Territorial expansion (§390). 
1903. Panama recognized (§ 396). 
1903. The Wright airplane (§458). 
1908. Conser\'ation of resources (§ 400). 

1913. New system of banks (§ 404). 

1914. Proclamation of neutrality (§420). 
1914. Panama Canal opened (§ 396). 

1916. First woman member of Congres.' 

(§463). 

1917. War with Germany (§ 425). 

1918. Battle of the Argonne (§ 444). 
1918. Armistice (§ 445). 

1920. Nineteenth AJinendment (woman suf- 
frage) (§ 463). 



PRESIDENTS AND VICE PRESIDENTS 



XXlll 



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xxiv SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
TABLE OF STATES 



No. 


Name of State 


U. 1 

c « h 

"^ i- J5 
i- H 2 
< u S 


ti. 

a i c 

i; = i 


No. 


Name hi-- State 


° 2 H 

a i- y. 
t- i- a 


! - •'• 

1^ s 


I 


Delaware . . 




1638 


1787 


29 


Iowa .... 




'833 


IS46 


2 


Pennsylvania 




I6S3 


17S7 


30 


Wisconsin 




1669 


1848 


3 


New Jersey . 




1617 


1787 


3' 


California . . 




1769 


IS50 


4 


Georgia. . . 




'733 


1788 


32 


Minnesota . . 




1819 


1858 


5 


Connecticut . 




^(>3j 


1788 


33 


Oregon . . . 




1811 


'859 


6 


Massachusetts 


1620 

1 


1788 


34 


Kansas . . . 




'S54 


1 86 1 


7" 


Maryland . . 




1634 


I7S8 


35 


West Virginia 




1727 


1863 


8 


South Carolina 




1670 


1788 


36 


Nevada . . . 




1850 


1864 


9 


New Hampshire 




1623 


1788 


37 


Nebraska . . 




1847 


1867 


lO 


Virginia . . 




1607 


1788 


38 


Colorado . . 




1859 


1876 


II 


New York 




1614 


17S8 


39 


North Dakota 


'857 


1889 


12 


North Carolina 




1663 


1789 


40 


South Dakota 


1857 


1889 


13 


Rhode Island 




1636 


1790 


41 


Montana . . 


1861 


1889 


14 


Vermont . 






1724 


'79' 


42 


Washington . 


.S45 


1 889 


IS 


Kentucky . 






'774 


1792 


43 


Idaho . . . 


1S62 


1S90 


16 


Tennessee 






1769 


1796 


44 


Wyoming . . 


1S67 


1890 


17 


Ohio . . . 






1788 


1803 


45 


Utah .... 


1847 


1896 


18 


Louisiana . 






1700 


1812 


46 


Oklahoma . . 


1889 


1906 


19 


Indiana . . 






1702 


1S16 


47 


New Mexico . 


1582 


1912 


20 


Mississippi 
Illinois . . 






1716 
1 68 2 


1817 
1818 


48 


Arizona. . . 


1580 


1912 


21 








22 


Alabama . 






1702 


1819 


Ter 


RIT()RIK.S AMI Po 

Datks uf Acgt 


iSESSIONS WITH 
JISITION 


23 
24 
25 


Maine . . 
Missouri . 
Arkansas . 






1625 
1719 
1670 


1820 
1S21 
1836 


Alas 
Mav 
Qua 


ka, 1867 Porto Rico, 1899 
'aii, 189S Canal Zone, 1904 
m, 1899 Tutuila Islands, 1S99 


26 


Michigan . 






1670 


1837 




District of Columbia, 1790 


27 


Florida . . 






1565 


1845 




Philippine Islands, 1899 


28 


Texas . . 






1685 


1845 




Virgin Islands, 1917 



INDEX 



ibolition, in Northern states, 257 
(note 2); by proclamation, 357; in 
Southern states, 375; by Thirteenth 
Amendment, 375 

ibolition movement, 2 So, 2S1 . 

icadia (aka'deah), 128 (note i) 

lCI of Toleration (England), 105 

iCt of Toleration (Maryland), 43 

xts, of Congress; of Parliament. See 
under name of act 

dams, C. F., 356 

dams, John, 161 note, 173; presi- 
dency of, 239-241 

dams, J. Q., presidency of, 265- 
268; protectionist leader, 268; 
Whig leader, 272 

dams, Samuel, 164 note, 165, 166, 170 

ddams, Jane, 509 

griculture, colonial, 32, 37, 58, 8,^, 
86, 95, 135 note, 139, 142; In- 
dian, 32 ; Southern, 37, 85, 86, 96, 
135, 139, 232, 233, 278, 493; 
Western, 210, 278, 315, 385, 386, 
495, 496 

guinaldo (a ge nahl' do), 415 

ircraft in World War, 457, 458, 468 
and note i 

labauia, Confederate warship, 356 and 
note; claims on account of the, 356 
(note i) 

labama, admitted to the Union, 258 
(note i); secedes, 334; readmitted, 
377 

Llamo (ah'lahmo), the, 292 

ilaska, 379 

ilbany conference, 123 (note i) 

ilbany settled, 68 

lien and Sedition Laws (1798), 240, 
241 

lien Contract Labor Act (1885), 402 

lien, Ethan, 167 

Isace, 526 

amendments to the Constitution, the 
first ten, 215; Twelfth, 239 (notei); 
Thirteenth, 375 and note, 511 (note 
2); Fourteenth, 376 and note; Fif- 
teenth, 377; Sixteenth, 454 note; 
Seventeenth, 512; Eighteenth, 283 
note; Nineteenth, 511; how made, 
Sii (note i) 

Lmerica, discovered by Norsemen, 10; 
discovered by Columbus, 15; effect 
of discovery of, on Europe, 15, 20, 



21, 23; earliest map of, 16; origin 
of name, 16; how found to be sepa- 
rate from Asia, 16; continent of, 
discovered by Cabot, 23; physical 
geography of central North America, 
109. Sec also Battles, Colonies, 
United States, Wars 

American people, distinguished from 
the English people, 149; makes its 
appearance middle of eighteenth 
century, 149; characteristics of, 518; 
main influences in creating character 
of, 520, 521 

Americanization, and the generosity of 
the national government, 315, 520, 
536; made easy through freedom of 
business, 520, 533; schools and, 520, 
538; self-government and, 520, 521; 
the English language and, 521; 
sports and, 538, 539; purpose of, 
539 

Americus V^espucius, 16 

Amnesty, Act of, 393 

Anaesthetics, discovery of, 314 

Anderson, Major, 334, 368 

Andre (an'dray). Major, 197 (note 2) 

Andros, Governor, 119, 120 

Anthony, Susan B., 510 

Antifederalists, 221 (note 2) 

Arbitration, settlements and treaties, 
225 and note, 356 (note i), 421, 422 
and note 2, 423, 431, 432; in labor 
disputes, 399, 401, 500, 501, 531, 
532 

Arizona, acquired from Mexico, 300; 
covered by Compromise of 1850, 
304; irrigation in, 323 note 

Arkansas, secedes, 336; war in, 339, 
369; readmitted to Union, 377 

Armistead, General, 359 

Armistice, 474. See also World War 

Arnold, Benedict, 184, 187 note, 197 

Art, American, 13S, 505, 506, 513 

Arthur, Chester A., presidency of, 397 

Articles of Confederation, 206 

Ashburton Treaty, 295 

Asia, first home of our ancestors, 4; 
medieval trade with, 11, 12; Amer- 
ican trade with, 312, 416; shorter 
route to, 387 and note 

Assemblies, colonial, 39, 41, 50, s r note, 
60, 77, 80, 104 and note, 120, 14S; 
James II seek^ to destroy, 119,- 



xxvi SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Geoise III suspends New York as- 
sembly, 1 60; Gage suspends Massa- 
chusetts assembly, 165 note 
Assistance, Writs of, 157, 158 
Associated Press formed, 313 
Astoria, 245 note 
Atlanta burned, 366 
Australians in World War, 438 
Austria, 432, 433, 434, 440, 472, 526 

Bacon's Rebellion, 103 
Balance of the sections in Congress, 
258 and note, 259, 267 note, 328, 
329 
Balboa (balbo'a), 16 
Balkan states, 432 
Ballot, Australian, 515 
Baltimore, city of, 142, 227, 252, 276 
Baltimore, Lord, 41, 42, 43, 45 
Bank, first United States, 221, 272 

note; second United States, 272 
Banks, "pet," 293 note; national, es- 
tablished, 338 note; Federal Reserve, 
424 note 
Baptists, first church of, in America, 

61,62 
Barnwell, John, 123 
Barton, Clara, 440 

Battles: Alabama and Kearsarge (ker'- 
sarj), 356 (note i); Alamance, 161; 
Alamo (ah'lah mo), 292; Amiens (ah- 
myahng'), 463; Antietam, or Sharps- 
burg, 3.54, 355 ; Argonne (ahr- 
gone'), 470; Atlanta, 366; Bad Axe, 
27s; Baker's Creek, or Champion's 
Hill, 351; Baltimore, 252; Belleau 
(bel o') Wood, 466; Bennington, 
186; Black Hawk's. 275; Bladens- 
burg, 251; Bloody IMarsh, 124; 
Bonhominc Richard (bo nom' re shar') 
and Seraph, 190; Boston, siege of, 
167, 171; Braddock's defeat, 127; 
Brandywine, 183; Brier Creek, 194; 
Brooklyn, 177; lUiena Vista (bwa- 
na vees^ ta), 298; Bull Run, or Ma- 
nassas (first), 340; Bull Run, or 
Manassas (second), 354; Bunker 
Hill, 167; Cambrai (kam bra'), 469; 
Camden, 196; Cantigny (kantecnye'), 
466; Cerro Gordo, 298; Champion's 
Hill, or Baker's Creek. 351; Chan- 
cellorsville, 357; Chapultepec (chah- 
pool'tapek), 29S; Charleston, first 
siege of, 122; Charleston, second 
siege of, 195; Charleston, third siege 
of, 368 (note 2): Chateau-Thierry 
(shato' teere') (first), 466; Cha- 
teau-Thierry (second), 466; Chat- 
tanooga, 363; Cherry Valley, 190; 
Chesapeake, 202; Chesapeake and 
Leopard, 248; Chickamauga (chick- 
a maw' ga), 363; Churubusco (choo- 
rooboos'ko), 298 note; Clark's at 



Vincennes, 193; Cold Harbor, 364; 
Concord, 166; Constellation and L'ln- 
surgcntc (Ian soor jahnt'), 240; Con- 
stitution and Gucrricrc (gay re air'), 
253, Contreras (kon tray'rahs), 298 
(note 2); Corinth, 350; Cowpens, 
199; Crown Point, 1S6; Deerfield, 
122; Detroit, 130; Elkhorn, or Pea 
Ridge, 339; Eutaw Springs, 200; 
Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines, 352; 
Fallen Timbers, 229; Fort Donelson, 
348; Fort Duquesne (dookane'), 
128 (note 2); Fort Griswold, 195 
(notei); Fort Henry, 347; Fort Mc- 
Henry, 252; Fort Mimms, 252 note; 
P^ort Necessity, 127; Fort Stanwix, 
184; Fort Sullivan, 171; Fort Sum- 
ter, 335; Frederica, 123; Fredericks- 
Ijurg, 355; Freeman's Farm, 187; 
Gallipoli (galip'olyj, 438; Galves- 
ton, 368; Germantown, 184; Gettys- 
burg, 358, 359; Great Bridge. 170; 
Great IMeadows, 127; Guilford 
Court House, 199; Harlem, 178; 
Hindenburg Line, 469-471; Hob- 
kirk's Hill, 200; Horseshoe Bend, 
see Tohopeka; Iluuley and Housa- 
tonic, 345 note; Jutland, 438; Kear- 
sarge and Alabama. 356 note; Kene- 
saw Mountain, 365; Kettle Creek, 194; 
King's Mountain, 198; Lake Cham- 
plain, 252; Lake luie, 252; Leopard 
and Chesapeake, 248; Lexington. 166; 
Long Island, sec Brooklyn; Louis- 
burg, 124: Lundy's Lane, 251; 
Malvern Hill, 353; Mansfield, 369; 
Marne (first), 436; Marne (second), 
467; Massacre, the Great, 100; 
l\Iatamoras, 297; Maumie, 229; 
Mexico City, 298; Mill Spring. 340; 
Mobile Bay, 366; Molino del Rey 
(mo le' no del ray'), 298 (note 2); 
Monitor and Mcrrimac {Virginia), 
345 ; Monmouth, 1S9; Monterey, 
298; Moore's Creek, 171; Murfrees- 
I'oro, 350; Nashville. 366; Neuve- 
Chapelle (nuv shap el'), 437; New 
Bern, 123; New Orleans (18 15), 
252; New Orleans (1862), 349; 
Oriskany (oris'kany), 184; Pal- 
niito, 369; Paulus Hook, 194; Pea 
Ridge, or Elkhorn, 339; Peninsular 
Campaign, 352; Perryville, 350; 
Petersburg, 365, 367; Pittsburg 
Landing, or Shijoh, 348; Platts- 
burg, 252; Princeton, 182; Quebec, 
129; Rheims (remz or raNs), 
466; St. Mihiel (san me yel'), 467, 
468; San Antonio (anto'neo), 298 
(note 2); San Gabriel River, 300; 
San Jacinto (jasin'to), 292; San- 
tiago (san te ah' go), 412; Saratoga, 
187; Savannah, 194; Seven Days' 



INDEX 



XXVll 



Battles around Richmond, 353; 
Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, 352; Sev- 
ern, the, 44; Sharpsburg, or An- 
tietam, 354, 355; Shenandoah (shen- 
ando'ah) Valley, 352, 365 (note 2); 
Somme (som), the, 437; Spottsyl- 
vania Court House, 364; Stonington, 
loi; Stony Point, 194; Sumter, 335; 
Thames, the, 251; Ticonderoga, 
186; Tippecanoe, 250; Tohopeka 
(to ho pee'kah), 252 note; Torcy, 
466; Trenton, 181; Tripoli, 243; 
Vardar Valley, 472; Vaux (vo), 466; 
Vera Cruz (vay'rah kroos), 298 and 
note i; Verdun, 437; Vicksburg, 
349, 350, 351; Vimy Ridge (veme'), 
438; Vincennes, 193; Washington, 
251; Waxhaw Creek, 195 (note 2); 
White Plains, 17S; Wilderness, the, 
363, 364; Williamsburg, 352; Win- 
chester, 365 (note 2); Wyoming, 
190; Yellow Tavern, 364 (notei); 
Yorktown (1781), 202; Yorktown 
(1862), 352: Ypres (eepr), 437 

Beauregard (bo'regard). General, 335, 
340, 34S 

Belgium, 434, 435, 439, 471 

Benjamin, Judah P., 322 

Bering (be'ring) Sea dispute, 422 

Berkeley, Sir William, 102, 103 

Bernhardi, General von, 442 

Bernstorff, Count von, 443 

Bienville (beenvii'), 114 

"Bill of rights" of the Constitution, 
21S 

Blackbeard, 99 

Black Hawk, 275 

Black list, 399 

Blaine, James G., 423 note 

Bland-Allison Act (1878), 396, 406 note 

Blockade (1861-1865), 342, 343, 355- 
3S7, 368; in World War, 440 

Bolsheviki (bol she vee kee'), 4SO note, 
463, 529 

Bond issues, 338, 455 

Boone, Daniel, 158 (note 2) 

Booth, J. W., 374 and note i 

Borah, Senator, 528 

Boston, settled, 55; fortified, 55; first 
American newspaper in, 141; port of, 
closed, 162; siege of, 167, 171 

Boston Massacre, 161 

'Boston Tea Party," 162 

Boundary disputes: Massachusetts and 
New Hampshire, 63 note; New 
York and Connecticut, 77 note; 
Pennsylvania and Maryland, 80 note; 
among states of the old Confedera- 
tion, 206, 207; United States and 
England, 256, 295, 296; United States 
and Spain, 256; United States and 
Mexico, 297; United States and Rus- 
sia, 295 note 



Boycott, use of, 399 and note 

Bragg, General, 350, 363 

Brent, Margaret, 42, 43 

Brest-Litovsk, 463 

Brewer, Catherine, first woman to re- 
ceive a college diploma, 279 note 

Brewster, William, 49 

Bright, John, 356, 357, 362 

British Empire in the eighteenth cen- 
tury, 152-157 

Brown, John, in Kansas, 325; raid in 
Virginia, 327; execution of, 328; 
denounced by Republicans, 329 

Bryan, William Jennings, 406, 423 

Buchanan, James, presidency of, 326- 
334 

Buell, General, 350 

Burgesses, House of, 39 

Burgoyne (burgoin'), General, 186; 
surrender of, 187 

Burke, Edmund, 156 

Burnside, General, 355 

Burr, Aaron, 246 (note 3), 247 

Business, government assistance to, ad- 
vocated by Hamilton, 221; opposed by 
Jefferson, 221; protection a method 
of giving, 266; after War of 1812. 
267; new demand for, by Clay and 
the Whigs (1837), 293; Van Buren 
refuses to give, 294 

Butler, General, 349 



Cabinet, defined, 219; first presidential, 
219; the various departments, 517 
note; and Presidential Succession 
Act, 517 note 

Cables, telegraph, 379 and note 

Cabot, John, 23 

Calhoun, leader of war hawks, 250 note; 
opposes protective tariff, 268; draws 
up Doctrine of Nullification, 268; his 
argument in defense of minorities, 
269 (note i); defends secession, 317; 
death of, 322 

California, claimed for England by 
Drake, 24; Mexican War, 299, 300; 
annexed to United States, 301; gold 
found in, 301-303; Vigilance Com- 
mittees of, 303; and Slavery ques- 
tion, 304; admitted to the Union, 
304; pony express to, 3S3; stage- 
coach to, 383 ; builds Central Pacific 
Railway, 384; and transcontinental 
railway, 384; and Japanese question, 
420; earthquake in, 420 

Calvert (Cecilius). Sec Baltimore, Lord 

Calvert, Leonard, governor of Mary- 
land, 42 

Canada, settled, 109, no; struggle of 
French and English for, 124-130; 
enlarged by Quebec Act, 162; 
boundary of, defined, 250, 295, 297; 



xxviii SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



in War of 1812, 251; Agreement of 
181 7 with, 255; and World .War, 
438 

Canal, Erie, 261-262 

Canal, Panama, 405, 417, 418 and note 

Canal Zone, 41S; yellow fever in, 502 

Cape of Good Hope discovered, 12 

Carolina, settled, 83; F"iindanicntal 
Constitutions of, 83: rule of Proprie- 
taries in, 83-85: products of, 85, 86; 
rebellions in, 87, 103: becomes a 
ro\al province, 87; separated into 
North and South, 87 

"Carpetbasisers,"' 393 

Carranza (cah rran' sah, •with rolhd r), 
Venustiano (vay noos tyah' no), 424, 
42s 

Carteret. Sir George, 78 

Cartier (car tyay'), explorations by, 109, 
1 10 

Carver, John, 50 

Catholics, Roman, lack relii^ious lib- 
erty in England, 41; emisrate to 
Maryland, 41; grant religious liberty 
to all Christians, 41, 43; first Roman 
Catholic church in the United States, 
42; enjoy freedom of worship in 
Rhode Island, 61; send missionaries 
to the Indians, loi note, 112; are 
deprived of freedom of worship, 148 
note; acquire complete religious free- 
dom, 148 

Caucus, as means of nominating presi- 
dent, 283. 512 note; objections to, 
284; supplanted by nominating con- 
vention, 284 

Census, the first, 227; and ratio of 
representation, 512 

Cervera ( ther vey'rah), Admiral, 413 

Champlain, no 

Channing, William Ellery, 280 

Charles I, king of England, 44, 54, 55, 
104 

Charles II, king of England, 75, 77, 
79, ?3, 104 

Charleston, settled, 86; besieged by 
Spaniards, 122; besieged by royal 
army, 195; taken by Union forces, 
368 (note 2) 

Charter Oak, 1 19 

"Charter of Lii)erties," 77 

Charters, colonial, :i^, 34 (note i), 40, 
41, 54, 60, 79, 83, 89, 104, 119, 120 

Chase, Salmon P., 322 

Chatham, Lord. See Pitt 

Chicago, site of, e.Nplored, 113; growth 
of, 227 note; city founded, 275 ; Fort 
Dearborn at, 276; e.xposition at, 405 

China, trade with, 312, 416; Boxer 
rebellion in, 416 note; our policy in, 
416 and note, 431 

Christian Commission, 360 

Christian Science Church, 504 



Christina, cjueen of Sweden, 70 

Church of England, supreme in Virginia, 
43; Pilgrims withdraw from, 49; 
Puritans at first do not wish to with- 
draw from, 53; Puritans decide to 
withdraw from, 55; in early Xew 
Hampshire, 64; in Maine, 64; in 
Carolina, 84; in Maryland, 148 

Cincinnati, Society of iJie, 207 note 

Cincinnati founded, 207 

Cities, colonial, 142, 143; population 
of, 227; improvement in, 509, 531; 
government of, 514, 510; rapid 
growth of modern, 536, 537 

Civil service, defined, 397; reform of 
the, 269 (note 2), 397 ^ 

Civilization, origin of European, 5; 
contribution of the Greeks to, 6; con- 
tribution of the Romans to, 6; what 
we owe to ancient, 6; carried to 
Teutonic peoples by traders, 7 note; 
recovery of, after second immigra- 
tion. 8 

f'aiborne's Rebellion, 44 

C'ark, George Rogers, 191-193 

Clay, Henry, 258, 272; leader of war i 
haw^ks, 250 note; three compromises ' 
of, 25S, 272, 304; argues for ma- 
jority rule, 269 (note i); Whig 
leader, 272, 277; candidate for pres- 
ident, 296; and the national idea, 
317; death of, 322 

Cleaveland, General, 208 

Clermont. Fulton's steamboat, 246 

Cleveland, Grover, first administration 
of, 398-402; second administration 
of, 405-407; and Hawaii, 414 and 
note; and Venezuela. 422 and note 2 

Clinton, Governor DeWitt, 261 

Clinton, Sir Henry, 189, 194-197; the 
French fleet ruins his plan, 200-202 , 

nipper shins, American, 310 I 

Coal, in colonial times, 97; new de- 
mand for. 277, 278, 536; conserva- 
tion of, 536 

Coal strike, 401, 501 

Coeducation, 279 

Coinage of money. 221 (note 1), 406 

Colleges, colonial, 140 

Colonies, Spanish, 20-22; Indians and 
the, 28-32; agriculture in, 32, 37, 
58, 85, 86. 95. 135, 139. 142; I 
motives for emigrating to, 33; Eng- 
lish, 5i, 65; education in the. 58 and 
note. 14S; Dutch, 66-73; Swedish, 
69-70; imity of the people generally. 
75, 76; the common law in the, 76; 
commerce of the, 85. 96. 135, 137; 
occupations of the people, 94, 98. 
138; life in the, 94, 98, 138, 147; 
wealth of. 98, 138, 139, 146; wars 
of the, 100-103, 121-130; govern- , 
ment of, 104, 105, 147, 148; union 



INDEX 



XXIX 



of the, los, 123; French, 109-116; 
Franklin's plan of union, 123 (note 
i); manufactures and trade of, 13S, 
137; mails and postage, 140; popu- 
lation of, 141, 142; cities of the, 
142; amusements in, 143, 145; share 
of, in life of the Empire, 147, i49, 
153, 154; mercantile system and the, 
153, IS4. 156; England taxes the, 158, 
159, 165. Sec also the names of the 
various colonics 
Colorado, Centennial state, 389 
Columbia, burning of, 367 (note i) 
Columbia College founded, 140 
Columbia River explored, 245. See 

Oregon 
Columbus, birth, voyages, and death, 

lo-iS 
Commerce, colonial, 95, 96, 135, 137, 
153; of United States, 212, 219, 248, 
249, 266; in clipper ships, 310, 312; 
with China. 312,416; British, opened 
to American ships, 312; greatly in- 
creased by transcontinental railway, 
3S7; recent, 497, 498. See also Ex- 
ports, Trade 
Commission government, 515 note 
Committees of Correspondence, 164 
Compromise of 1787, 516; the Mis- 
souri, 257, 258; Clay's tariff, 272; 
of 1850, 304; Crittenden, 336 (note 

I) 

Confederate army commissioners at 
Washington, 335 note 

Confederate States of America, forma- 
tion of, 332-334; first president of, 
334; capitals of, 334, 337; how sup- 
ported, 338; and Europe. 341, 343, 
355. 361; and the blockade, 342, 
343, 355; and slavery, 355, 356. 357, 
371; life in the, 361, 362; fall of 
the, 367-369 

Confederation, the New England, 105- 
106 

Confederation of the United States, 206, 
2 12-2 IS 

Congregational Church founded in 
Massachusetts, 55 

Congress, the Albany {see Albany 
Conference); the Stamp Act, 160; 
first Continental, 164: Provincial 
(Massachusetts), 165 (notei); sec- 
ond Continental, 170, 183, 197, 198; 
of the Confederation, 207, 212; un- 
der the Constitution, 213; empow- 
ered to judge qualifications of its 
members, 376 note; in impeachments, 
377 note; powers of, 512, 514 and 
note; why it has two Houses, 516; 
how it makes laws, 516 

Connecticut, settled, 58; government 
of, 60; in New England Confedera- 
tion, 105; under Andros, 119; in 



Revolution, 173, 179 note, 190 note, 

195 (note i); original extent of, 

206 note; cedes Western lands, 207 

note 
Conscription, in the Civil War, 359 note, 

360 note; in the World War, 450, 

451 
Conservation, 404, 420, 421, 535, 536 
Constitution of the United States, first, 

206; necessity of framing a new, 

211, 212; convention drafts the new, 

212, 213, 214, 516; adopted, 214, 
215 note. See Appendix 

Constitutional Convention, 212, 213, 
516 

Continental currency, 197, 198 

Convention, nominating, 284, 286; first 
president selected by nominating, 
284; Confederate, 334; peace, 336 
note; for preservation of natural re- 
sources, 421 

Cooper, Peter, 276 

Cornwallis, Lord, British general, 179- 
182; his army forms one half of 
Clinton's "pincers," 194', 196; in the 
South, 195-200; at Yorktown, 201, 
202 

Coronado (kor o nah'do), 21 

Corporations, 388 (note 3) 

Correspondence, Committees of, 164 

Cortez in Mexico, 20 

Cotton, export of, 135, 234, 267, 343, 
395, 498; manufacture of, 232, 233; 
first complete cotton mill (18 14), 
234; increased production of, 234, 
395; how affected by tariff, 267; 
importance of, to the Confederacy, 
341; how affected by blockade, 342, 
343 (note 2); "Cotton is King," 
342; and England. 355, 356 

Cotton gin invented, 233 

Counties, in the South, 143; in middle 
colonies, 147; officers in, 514 

Cox, James M., 259 

Crittenden Compromise, 336 (note i) 

Cromwell, Oliver, Lord Protector, 45 

Cuba, a Spanish colony, 410; destruc- 
tion of tiie Maine, 411; war in, 412, 
413; independent under protection of 
the United States, 413-415 

Culpepper's Rebellion. 103 

Custer, General, killed, 386 

Czar (zar) Nicholas II of Russia, 423, 
462 

Czechoslovakia (check o slo vak' i a), 
526 

Da Gama, voyage of, 12 
Danish West Indies, 486 
Dartmouth College founded, 140 
Davis, Jefferson, new leader, 322; pres- 
ident of the Confederacy, 334; re- 
moves Joseph E. Johnston, 366; 



XXX SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



appoints Hood, 3 66; leaves Richmond, 
367 (note 2): captured, 367 (note 
2); imprisoned, 367 (note 2); Secre- 
tary of War, 492 

Dawes Act. 387 ( note i ) 

Daylight-saving plan, 460 

Dealer, problems of small, 532, 533 

Deane, Silas, 188 (note 2) 

Debt of the Revolutionary War, 198, 
219. 221 

Decatur (de. ka' tur). Commodore, 243 

Decimal system, 221 (notei) 

Declaration of Independence, 173 

Declaration of Rights, of 1765, 160; 
of 1774. 164 

De Kail), General, 188 note 

Delaware, settled by Swedes, 69; seized 
by the Dutch, 70, 71: seized by the 
Knglish, 72; granted to William 
I'enn, 82; does not secede, 336 (note 
2) 

De Lesseps, Ferdinand, 417 

Demarcation line, 13 note 

Democracy, 209; Jefferson a believer 
in, 243; growth in America, 280; 
triumph of, 285: opposed by Prussia, 
429; an issue of the World War, 443, 
446; and present conditions, 539; 
new crises of, 539-541 

Democrats, beginning of the party, 221, 
222; Thomas Jefferson leader of the, 
221, 243; uphold states' rights, 221, 
241; friendly to France, 222; only 
political party. 265 note; drop their 
former name, 273; advocate an inde- 
pendent treasury, 294: principles of, 
294 (notei): absorb slavery mem- 
bers of Whig party, 325 note; Silver 
Democrats and Gold Democrats, 398, 
405 

Department of Agriculture, 495 

Department of Commerce and Labor, 
401, 517 note 

Department of Labor, 401, 402, 517 
note 

"Desert, Great American," 323 note 

De Soto (deso'to), 21 

Dewey, Admiral, 412, 431 

Diaz (de'as), voyage of, 12 

Diedrichs, Admiral von, 431 

Dinwiddle, Governor, 124 

District of Columbia, 236 

Dix, Dorothea, 312 

Dominion of Xew England, 119 

Dominions, outlj'ing. 486 

Dorr's Rebellion, 280 

Douglas, Stephen A., 322, 323, 326 

Draft riots, 360 note 

Drake. Sir Francis, voyage of, 24 

Dred Scott case, 326 

Duquesne, Fort. 127, 128 note 

Ducjuesne, Marquis, 124, 126 

Dutch in America, 67-72 



Fads (eedz), James B., 394 

I%arly, General, 365 (note 2) 

Earthquake, at Charleston, 420; at San 
Francisco, 420 

I'".(ldy, Mrs. Mary IJaker, 504 

Edenton, tea party at, 162 note 

Edison, 502 

Education, in colonial period, 58 and 
note; in the West, 230, 279; in the 
South in 1790, 23s; of women, 279; 
and .\mericanization, 537, 539. See 
also Colleges, Schools 

Edwards, Reverend Jonathan, 145 

Eight-hour day. 389. 400 

Election, the disputed (1876), 392 

Elections, 239 note. 511-515; how the 
vote is taken, 5 15 

Electoral College, 511 

Electric railways, 496 

Electricity. Franklin's discoveries, 147; 
later inventions, 496, 502; impor- 
tance of. today. 536 

Eliot, Reverend John, loi 

lilizabeth. (.)ueen. 23-25 

Emancipation of slaves, attempted in 
colonial Virginia, 137 (note 2); 
effected in the Northern states, 257 
(note 2); demanded by Garrison, 
281; by Lincoln's proclamation, 357; 
and Southern states, 375; and Thir- 
teenth .Amendment, 375. Sec also 
Abolition. Slavery 

Embargo Act, 248, 249; effect of, on 
manufactures, 265 

Emigration, to the West, 207, 208, 228, 
229, 259, 260, 278, 291, 296, 302, 
315, 382, 3S3, 386, 403; to the 
United States, 308, 518, 537 

Employers' associations, 389 

F^ndicott, John, at Salem, 55 

Engine, steam, invention of, 232 

England. Scr Great Britain 

Entente Cordiale, 432 note 

Ericson, Leif (lif), discovers America, 
10 

Ericsson. John. 345 

Ether, discovery of. 314 

Europe, background of American his- 
tory, 3; in ancient times, 5, 6; in 
the Dark Ages, 8; and the coloniza- 
tion of .America, 9, 20, 22; during 
the fifteenth century, 11 

Excess-profits tax, 454 

Exemptions under the draft (World 
War), 451 

Existence, wars for, iii, 116, 122, 129, 

131 
Expansion of the United States, 480- 

483 
Exports, colonial, 135, 137; embargo 
on, 248; enormous increase in, 497, 
498. Src also Commerce, Navigation 
acts. Trade 



INDEX 



XXXI 



Exposition: World's Fair, 322; Cen- 
tennial, 389; New Orleans Cotton 
Centennial, 395 ; Atlanta Cotton, 395; 
Columbian, 405; Louisiana Purchase, 
405; San Francisco, 405 

Factory system, origin of, in England, 
231; in America, 233, 234 

Fall line, 395 

Farm Bureau, 536 

Farms and farming, 58, 85, 86, 278, 386, 
493, 494, 495. See also Agriculture 

Farragut, Admiral, 349. 366 

Federal Reserve Banks, 424 note 

Federalists, the, 221, 222, 223, 239, 
241, 265 

Federation of Labor, 400, 456, 498 

Field, Cyrus W., 378 

"Fifty-four forty or fight," 296 

Fillmore, Millard, president, 320 

Finances, during the Revolution, 197, 
198; in the period of the Confedera- 
tion, 212; Hamilton's measures re- 
garding, 221; during Lincoln's ad- 
ministration, 338; in the World War, 
454, 455 

Fisheries, cod, 73, 82, 125, 135 

Fitch, John, inventor, 235 note 

Five Nations, the, 134 note. Sec also 
Iroquois Indians 

Flag, first United States, 184 note; 
development of the American, 185; 
the Confederate, 333 

Florida, discovered, 2 1 ; struggle of 
French and Spaniards for, 22: in- 
vaded from Southern English colonies, 
123: in Revolutionary War, 194; 
Spain cedes to England, 202; Eng- 
land cedes back to Spain, 202 ; Jack- 
son in, 252 note, 257 (note i); 
United States purchases, 257; Sem- 
inole wars in, 257 note: secedes, 334; 
readmitted to the Union, 377 

"Flying machine," 139 

Foch (fosh), Marshal, 437, 465, 466, 
467, 469, 471 

Food Commission in World War, 459 

Foodstuffs, how secured by colonists, 
32, 57, 95, 96; in World War, 459 

Force Act, 272 

Foreign policy of the LTnited States, 
222, 223, 240, 244, 248, 249, 250, 
254, 255, 256, 29s, 296, 297, 355, 
356, 357, 379, 380, 429, 432, 439, 
446, 463, 529 

Foreign trade, growth of, 135, 137, 
310, 312, 497 

Forest, national, 404, 421 

Forests, destruction of, 404; preserva- 
tion of, 404, 421, 535 

Forestry, Bureau of, 42 i 

Forts: Dearborn (Chicago), 276; Don- 
elson, 347; Duquesne, 127; Henry, 



347; Kaskaskia,i92 ; LeBoeuf(lebuf'), 
126; Louisburg, 124; McHenry, 
252; Mimms, 252 note; Monroe, 
351, 367 (note 2) Necessity, 
127; Orange (Albany), 68; Pitt • 
(Pittsburg), 128 (note 2); Quebec, 
129; Sackville (Vincennes (vinsenz') ), 
192; Stanwix, 184; Stony Point, 
194; Sullivan, 171; Sumter, 334, 
335, 368; Ticonderoga, 167 note, 
186 

Fourteen Points, the, 525 

France, sends expedition to America, 
22; makes explorations in America, 
109; plants colony at Quebec, 110; 
in the West, 111-113; takes posses- 
sion of Louisiana, 114; establishes 
New France, 114; struggle of, with 
England for America, 121-131; aids 
us in our war for independence, 188; 
our dispute with, after the Revolu- 
tion, 223; war with, 240; sells us 
Louisiana, 244; intervenes in Mexico, 
356, 379; in the World War, 434- 
437, 463-467. 469, 474- See also 
Catholics, Genet, Huguenots, Lafay- 
ette, Missionaries, Wars 

Francis Ferdinand, assassination of, 433 

Franklin, Benjamin, proposes union of 
the colonies, 123; life of, 147-149: 
and Declaration of Independence, 
173; negotiates treaty with France, 
188; fits out warships, 190; helps 
frame the Constitution, 212, 213 

Franklin, state of, 209 

Frederica, Spaniards defeated at, 123 

Free coinage defined, 406 

" Free silver," demand for, 406 

Freedman's Bureau, 375 

Freedmen, 375, 377, 378; and "carpet- 
baggers," 393; and "scalawags," 
393; and Ku Klux Klan, 393 

Freedom of speech acquired by colo- 
nies, 105 

Freight, cheap rates by canal, 262 

Fremont, General, 299, 300 

Friends, or Quakers, belief of, 62 ; 
in Massachusetts, 62, 78-79. See also 
Penn, Quakers 

Frontier, in the wars for existence, 
124, 126; early settlements along 
Western, 158 (note 2): men of, at 
King's Mountain, 198: settlement 
along the, 207-208; effect of the, on 
American life, 209; trade of the, 
210: life on the, 229, 230; advance 
of the, 282, 283 

Fuel, conservation of, in World War, 
459, 460; in peace, 536 

Fugitive slaves, law respecting, 304, 
320, 321. Sec also Slavery 

Fulton's steamboat, 245, 246 

Fur trade, 135 



xxxii SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Gadsden, Christopher. 164, 170 

Gadsden Purchase, 300 

Gase, General, 165, 167, 171 

Garfield, Dr. Harry A.. 459 

Garfield, James A., presidency of, 397 

Garrison. William Llo\d, 281 

Gas in World War, 470 

Gas pec, 161 

Gates, General, 187 note, 196 

General Assembly of New York, 77 

General Court of Massachusetts, 51 
note, 104 (note i) 

Genet (zh'nay), 223 

Gene\a 'I'riljunal, 356 (note i) 

George III, 154, 156-163, 170, 172, 
173, 202 

Georgia, founded, 89; slavery in, 90, 
91; prohibition in, 91: Lutherans in, 
91: the Wesleys in, 92; in the wars 
for existence, 123, 124; in the Revo- 
lutionary War, 190, 194, 195; secedes, 
334: readmitted, 377 

Georsia Female Collcse grants first 
college degree to a woman, 2 79 

German Empire, 429-434; in the World 
War, 434-475; at war with the 
United States, 445-475; and the 
German revolution, 473, 474 

German Republic, established, 474; and 
peace treaty, 526 

Gernian-.\mericans. loyalty of, to United 
States in World War. 443 

Germans, in Penns>lvania, 81; in Geor- 
gia, 91; in the Revolution, 188 
(note i) 

Gettysburg, 358, 359 

Ghent, treaty of. 254 

Goethals (go'thalz). Colonel George W., 
418 note 

Gold, discovered in California, 301; in 
.Alaska, 379 

Gold Standard Act. 407 

Gompers, Samuel, 456. 498 

Gorges (gor'jes), Sir Ferdinando, 63- 
64 . 

Government, of the colonies, 34, 37, 39, 
40, 42, 44, 50, 51, 54. 55. 56. 60. 
61, 64, 68, 71, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82,89, 
104, 105, 118, 119, 120, 137, 147, 
148. 153, 156, I57> 159, 162, 165; 
under the .Articles of Confederation, 
185, 212: of the United States, 212, 
2 15, 5H. 5' 2, 516, 517; of cities, 
512, 514; of states, 514, 515. Sre 
also Colonies, Confederation, Con- 
gress, Reconstruction, Secession, States' 
ri^hts. Union of American states. 
United States 

Goxernor. colonial, in Virginia. 40; in 
Maryland, 42; in Plymouth. 50; in 
Massachusetts Bay. 55: in Connecti- 
cut, 60: in Rhode Island. 61; how 
chosen in 1763, 147; powers of, 147 



Grant, General Ulysses S., in Mexican 
War, 298 (note); in the war be- 
tween North and South, 347, 348, 
35.0, 351, 363, 364, 365. 367; re- 
ceives Lee's- surrender, 367; gener- 
osity of, toward the Confederates, 
368; presidency of, 384-3S9 

"Great .American Desert," 523 note 

Great Britain, rival of Spain in North 
America, 23: colonies of, in North 
America, 33-65, 74-92; treatment of 
colonies by, 39, 40, 45, 54, 60, 61, 
73, 75, 76, 87, 89, 104, 119, 120, 
13s- 137, 147. 148, 152, 153, 154, 
156; rival of France in North Amer- 
ica, hi; struggle of, with James II, 
H9-120; wars of, with the Bour- 
bons, 121-130; place of. in the Brit- 
ish Empire, 153, 154; and the 
American Revolution, 154, 156, 157, 
172, 202; early relations with the 
United States, 212; and Jay's treaty, 
224; and the Industrial Revolu- 
tion. 231: impressment and right of 
search, 248; and the War of 1812, 
249-254; and northern boundary, 255, 
256, 296; and the cotton trade, 267, 
355: and Maine boundary, 294-295; 
and Oregon, 296-297; and the recog- 
nition of the Confederacy, 356, 357; 
and the .Alabama claims, 336 (note i ) ; 
and the Bering Sea dispute, 422; 
and the Venezuela disputes, 422, 431; 
accepts Roosevelt's proposal. 432; 
in World War, 434-438, 452, 454, 
463, 464, 469, 473-476 

Greeley. Horace, 357 (note i) 

Greenbacks. 338, 396 

(Jreene. General Nathanael, 199, 200 

Grundy. Felix. 250 note 

Guadalupe Hidalgo (gwah dah loo' pay 
hedahl'go), treaty of. 300 

Guam (gwam) annexed. 486 

Guiteau (ge toe'), 397 

Hague (haig). Court of Arbitration, 

4^:3. 434 
Haig (haig). Sir Douglas, 437, 466, 470 
Hamilton, Alexander, and the Consti- 
tution, 213; first Secretary of the 
Treasury, 219: financial policy of, 
2 19, 221; and the LTnited States P>ank, 
221; leader of the Federalist party, 
221; death of. 246 (note 3) 
Hampton. General Wade, 393 
Hancock. General, 359 
Hancock. John. 138. 159. 165, 166,173 
Harding, Warren G., elected president, 529 
Harrison, Benjamin, presidency of, 402- 

404 
Harrison. General William H.. at Tip- 
pecanoe. 250; in War of 1812, 251; 
presidency of, 294 



INDEX 



XXXIU 



Hartford founded, 59 

Harvard University founded, 58 

Hat Act, 137, 154 

Hawaii (hahwy'e), 413, 414 and note 

Hay, John, 431 

Hayes, Rutherford B,, presidency of, 
392-396 

Haymarket riot, 400 

Hayne, senator, 270; in the Great De-- 
bate, 270, 271 

Henrico University, 58 

Henry, Patrick, 159, 164, 170, 191 

Herkimer (her'kemer). General, 1S4 

Hessians (hesh'anz), 172 

Hindenburg, Field Marshal von, 437, 
465 

Hindenburs Line, 469, 470 

Hobson, Lieutenant, 412 note 

Holland, colonies of, 66-72; in Revo- 
lutionary War, 1S9. Sec also New • 
N'ethcrland 

Holy Alliance, 255 and note, 256 

Homestead Act, 385 

Hood, General, 366 

Hooker, General, 357 

Hooker, Reverend Thomas, 59, 60 

Hoover, Herbert C, 439. 45 6, 459 

House of Representatives, how com- 
posed, 512 

Houston, General Sam, 292, 322 

Howe, General, 167, 171, 174, 176, 
177. 182, 1S3, 1S9 

Hudson, Henry, 66, 67 

Huerta in INIexico, 424 

Huguenots (hue'ge nots) in Carolina, 84 

Hull House, 509 

Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 57, 61; fol- 
lowers of, settle in New Hampshire, 
63 

Idaho, 252, 359> 360 

Illinois, Indian wars in, 173, 193, 237, 
275: conquered by Clark, 192: ceded 
to \'irginia, 193 note; part of North- 
west Territory, 207 

Immigrants, two classes of, 518, 519; 
Americanization of, 520, 521, 534, 
535. 537. 53S, 539 

Immigration, 314, 315, 402: change in 
character of. 518; problems of recent, 
537. 538. Scr also Emigration 

Impeachment, defined, 377 note; of 
President Johnson, 376-377 

Imports, colonial, 135 

Lnpressment of American sailors, 248, 

Improvements, internal, 259-261, 276, 
383, 384, 394, 404. 421, 535. 536. 
Sec also Railways, Roads, Telegraph 

Income tax, 454 and note 

Indentured servants, 38, 39, 98 

Independence, beginning of movement 
for, 167 note, 170; Virginia declares 
for, 173; secured, 202 



Independent treasury, 294 

Independents. Sec Pilgrims 

Indiana, conquered by Clark, 193; 
ceded to Virginia, 193; part of 
Northwest Territory, 207 

Indians, 15, 28-32; how they aided the 
colonists, 42, 51, 90; treaties with, 
42, 51, 81, 82, 90, 100, in; wars 
with, 100, loi, 102, 121-123, 190, 
208, 229, 250, 252 note, 257 (note i), 
27s, 383, 386; Catholic mission- 
aries to, loi note, 112: Iroquois, in, 
123; Canadian, 122; Southern, 123; 
cease to be a danger to colonists, 
134; in Revolution, 190; and the In- 
dian Territory, 275 note; and the 
system of reservations, 386; as citi- 
zens, 387 (note i) 

Indigo culture in South Carolina, 135 

Industrial Revolution, 230, 231, 266 

Industrial Workers of the World (I.W. 
W.) 498, SCO 

Industry, colonial, 96, 97; in World 
War, 456-459; development of, in 
the LTnited States, 495-498 

Initiative in legislature, 514 

International law, defined, 343 (note 
3); and the Trent affair, 343, 344; 
Alabama claims under, 356 (note 
i); and World War, 440, 441, 442, 
445 

Interstate Commerce Act, 388 (note 3), 
514, 517 note 

Interstate Commerce Commission, 514 

Intolerable Acts, 162 

Inventions, 147, 190 note, 231, 232, 
233, 234 and note, 246, 259, 276, 
278, 310 and note. 34S and note, 
378, 379, 453 note, 456, 457, 469, 
note, 494, 496, 502 

Ireland, great emigration from, 309, 

Iron, beginning of industry in America, 
97: increased importance of, 278 

Ironclads, 345 

Iroquois (ir'okwoi) Indians, no, in, 
112, 134, 190 

Irrigation of desert lands, 323 note 

Italy in the World War, 438, 472; 
and the Treaty of Versailles, 526 

Jackson, General Andrew, victory at 
Tohopeka, 252 note; at New Orleans, 
252 ; and the Scminoles, 257 (note i) : 
presidency of, 269-273; and the 
L^nited States Bank, 272, 293 note; 
and the nominating convention, 284; 
and "pet banks" 293 note 

Jackson, General Thomas J., 340, 352- 
354; death of. 358 

Jamestown, Virginia, settled, 34; burned 
by Bacon, 102 

Japan, Perry's treaty with, 323; emi- 
gration from, to America, 418, 419, 



xxxiv SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



420; agreement made by United 
States with, 420; treaty of, with 
Russia, 420 note; in World War, 43S 

Jasper, Sergeant, 173 

Jay, John, treaty with England, 3:4 

Jefferson, Thomas, drafts the Declara- 
tion of Independence, 17,?; governor 
of Virginia, 200: first Secretary of 
State, 319: founds first Republican, 
now Democratic, party, 221; political 
principles, 221, 242, 243; and dec- 
imal system, 221 note, 223; vice pres- 
ident, 239; presidency of. 242-249; 
purchases province of Louisiana, 244; 
views of, on slavery, 280 

Jesuit missionaries in the West, iii, 
112 

Jews, given religious freedom in Rhode 
Island. 61: in World War, 462; in 
American life, 504 

Joftre (zho fr), Marshal. 436 

Johnson, Andrew, presidency of, 374- 
3S0 

Johnson, Senator, 52S 

Johnston, General .A. S.. 34S 

Johnston, General Joseph E., 340, 352, 
363. 366 

Joliet (.jo' le et) and Marquette (.mar- 
kef), expedition of, 112. 113 

Jones, Captain Paul. 1S4 note 

Jury, trial by (colonial period), 104, 
165 and note; granted by personal- 
liberty laws, 321 note 

Kalb, Baron de, 1S8 (note i) 
Kansas, explored ' by Coronado, 2 1 ; 

struggle for, 324, 325; enters as a 

free state, 334 (note 2); gives women 

the right to vote. 510 
Kansas-Nebraska Kill. 323, 324 
Kaskaskia taken by Clark. 192 
Kearny (kar'ne). General, 300 
Kcarsargc sinks the Alabama, 356 

(note i) 
Kentucky, Daniel Boone in, 15S (note 

2); Clark in, 191; men from, at 

King's Mountain. 19S; settled, 208; 

"dark and bloody ground," 208; 

becomes a state, 208; does not secede, 

336 (note 2); the war in, 340, 347, 

350 
Kentucky and \'irginia Resolutions 

:;4i 
Kiaochow (keeowchow), 438 
Kidd, Captain, 99 
Kiel (keel), mutiny at, 473 
King Philip's War. 101, 102 
King's College (Columbia), 140 
Klondike mines, 379 
Knights of Columbus in World War, 462 
Koblenz. Americans occupy, 474 
Kosciusko ( kos se us'ko), General, 188 
Ku-Klux Klan, 393 



Labor, conditions of, 231; factory sys- 
tem in England, 234; factory system 
in America, 234 ; begins to fear the 
corporations, 3 88; demands an eight- 
hour day,3S9; protection of .\merican, 
400; organized, in the World War, 
456-458; later problems of, 49S-501 
(see also Strikes); employment of 
women, 50S, 509, 510 

Labor, Knights of, 3S9; American Fed- 
eration of, origin of, 400 

Lafayette (lah fay et'). 183 note, 200 

Lakes, Great, discovered, 1 1 1 ; War of 
1S12 on, 251, 253; closed to war- 
ships by agreement of 1S17, 253 

Land, gift of, in Virginia to settlers, 
37; in the colonies, 44, 45, 48 (see 
also Charters) ; sort of, desired by 
colonists, 58; search for good land, 
59, 69; source of wealth in New 
York, 138; source of wealth in the 
South, 139; cessions of, to the nation 
by states, 206, 207; cheap public, 
315, 520; government grants of, to 
railways, 384, 385: grants of, under 
Homestead Act, 3S5, 386; foreign 
cessions of, to the United States. 482, 
4S3, 4S6; effect of free, in Ameri- 
canizing immigrants, 520, 536, 537; 
efforts to improve, 535, 536. Sfc also 
Agriculture, Farms and farming 

Land Purchase .-Xct. 315 

La Salle (la sal') explores the Missis- 
sippi, 113. 114 

Latin America, 423 

Laurens (law'renz), John, 198 

Law, colonists protected by the com- 
mon, 76 

Laws, of colonial period, how made, 24, 
32, 41, 50. 51 and note. 60. 64, 71, 
77. 80. 83, 89, 104, 105, 135. 137, 
147, 14S; Virginia land, 37; against 
Puritans in Virginia, 43 ; religious, of 
Massachusetts. 55: early school, 58; 
Georgia prohibitory. 90, 91 

League of Nations. 526-529 

Lee, Charles. 189 and note 

Lee, Fitzhugh, 415 

Lee, Henry, 194 

Lee, Richard, 173 

Lee, Robert E.. in ^[exican War. 298 
(note i); takes command of Con- 
federate forces. 352; in the war be- 
tween North and South. 353-355, 
357-359. 364-367: surrenders at Ap- 
pomattox, 367; tribute of Grant to, 
367 

Legislatis'e assembly, first, in America, 
39 

Leisler, Jacob, 120 

Lenin, (lye'neen), 463 

Lewis and Clark's expedition, 245 

Liberator, Garrison publishes the, 281 



INDEX 



XXXV 



Liberty loans, 455 

Lincoln, Abraham, views on slavery, 
281 (note 2), 327, 357; early life 
of, 326, 327; debate with Douglas, 
326; elected president, 329; presi- 
dency of, 334; first call for volun- 
teers, 335; relations with Sumner and 
Bright, 357; letter to Horace Gree- 
ley, 357 note; issues Emancipation 
Proclamation, 357; second inaugural, 
373; proposal to assist South, 373- 
374; assassination, 375; description 
of our country by, 484; views with 
regard to labor, 500; as a writer, 
505 

Lincoln, General, 187 note, 194, 195 

Liquor, use of, 91, 283 and note. See 
also Prohibition, Temperance cause 

Literature, colonial interest in, 145; in 
the United States, 282, 283, 295, 
313, 314, 504, 505 

Livingston, Robert R., 173, 244 

Loans, by France to the United States, 
198; to the United States, 338; in 
World War, 455 

Local government, in early Xew Eng- 
land, 51 and note; in Southern colo- 
nies 143; in middle colonies, 146, 
147 

Locomotive, 276 

Lodge, Henry Cabot, 258, 271 note 

''Log-cabin candidate," 294 

London Company, 34 (note i) 

Long, Dr. Crawford \V., 314 

Loom, the power, 233 

''Lost battalion," 470 

Louis XI\', king of France, 85, 114, 
116, 120, 121, 122 

Louis XVI, king of France, 188, 191 

Louisiana, 114; purchased by the 
United States, 244 

Lovejoy, Elijah, 281 

Loyalists. See Tories 

Lucas, Eliza, introduces indigo, 135 

Ludendorf, General von, 465, 474 

Litsitania, 441 

Lutherans, in Pennsylvania, 81; in 
Georgia, 91 

Mc.\doo, William G., 458 

McClellan. General, 339, 351-355 ' 

Macon's Bill Xo. 2, 249 note 

McDowell, General, 340 

IMachines, ancient, 231; changes effected 
by, 231, 233. 278, 310, 494; Ameri- 
can labor-saving, 232-234 note, 278, 
310, 494, 496; e.xport of, 497, 498 

IMcKinley, William, presidency of, 410- 
416 

Madison, James, in the constitutional 
convention, 213; presidency of, 249- 
254 

jMagellan (ma jel'an), voyage, 16 



Magruder, General, 368 

Mahan (mahan'), Captain, 343 (note 
I) 

Mails, colonial, 140; to the Pacific, 
383 

Maine, first attempt to settle, 34 note; 
permanently settled, 63, 64; united 
with Massachusetts. 64; in the Revo- 
lution, 170; and the Missouri Com- 
promise, 258; enters the Union, 259; 
boundary dispute w'ith England, 295 

Maine destroyed, 411 

Manhattan Island purchased, 67 

Manila, Germans at, 431 

Manufactures (colonial period), 96, 137; 
woolen mills, 230; of cotton, 234; 
first complete cotton mill, 234; of 
nails, 234 note; effect of the embargo 
on, 265; effect of War of 1812 on, 
266; protection of .American, 266, 
267; growth of American, 496, 497; 
exports of American, 497, 498. See 
also Industrial Revolution, Tariff, 
Trusts 

Map of .America, the first, 16 

Marine Brigade, Wood of, 466 

Marion (mar'eon). General, 196 

Marquette (market'), 112 

Marshall, John (Chief Justice), 241 

Mary, queen of England, 120. See 
William and Mary 

Maryland, granted to Lord Baltimore 
as a proprietary colony, 41; Act of 
Toleration in, 43: Catholics in, de- 
prived of their rights, 148 note; and 
struction of tea, 162 

Mason, John, proprietor of Xew Hamp- 
shire, 63 

Mason and Dixon's line, 80 note 

IMason and Slidell (sly del'), 343 

Mass celebrated in Maryland, 42 

Massachusetts, Puritan rule in, 54-57; 
religion in, 56, 57, 62; education in, 
58; suggests Stamp Act Congress, 60; 
extent, 63 note; purchases Maine, 
64; becomes a royal province, 120; 
freedom of worship extended to all 
Protestants in, 120; in the wars for 
existence, 122; its government trans- 
formed by Intolerable .Acts, 162; re- 
volt of, against the king, 164-168, 
171; original extent of. 206 note; 
cedes Western lands, 206, 207. See 
also Colonies, Pilgrims, Plymouth, 
Puritans 

jNIassachusetts Bay Company, first char- 
ter of, 54 

Massachusetts Sixth Regiment at Bal- 
timore, 336 

Massacre, the Great, 100 ; the Boston, 
161; at Cherry Valley, 190; at 
Wyoming, 190. See also Indians, 
Wars 



xxxvi SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



]Massasoit (mas sa soil'), 51, 5 7 

Maury, Matthew Fontaine, 310; lays 
out routes at sea, 312 

Maximilian, emperor of Mexico, 356, 
379, 3'So 

Mayence (.niions'), 474 

Mayflower compact, 50 

Meade, deneral. 35^ 

Meclilenburg Declaration of Independ- 
ence, 167 note 

Medical school, first in United States, 
140 

ISIenendez (menen'dez) in Florida, 22 

Mercantile S\>leiii, 153, 156 

Merchant marine, 310, 532 

"Merit system," 397 

Mrrrimac, or Virginia, destroys war- 
ships, 345; and Monitor, 345 

M err till ac (Spanish War), sinking of 
the. 412 note 

Methodist Church in Georgia, 92 ' 

Mexican War, 297-300 

Mexico conquered by Cortes, 20; Texas 
breaks away from, 292: empire of, 
356, 379; our recent relations with, 

424, 42s 

Michigan, explored by French, iii: 
claimed by Massachusetts and Vir- 
ginia, 206 note; part of Northwest 
'I'erritory, 207 

Middle colonies, 66, 96, 146; life in 
the, 146, 147 

Mines in colonial times, 96, 97. See 
also Coal, Gold, Iron, Silver 

Minnesota admitted to Union, 329 

Mint established, 22 i 

Minuit (min'uit), Peter, 67 

ISIinutemen, 165 and note 

Mi(luelon (mike Ion'), island of, 130 

Missionaries, Catholic, in the West, in; 
Protestant, in Oregon, 295, 296 

Missions, Indian, 92, 10 1 note. iii. 112 

Mississippi, state of, admitted to Union, 
258 (note 2); secedes, 334; read- 
mitted, 377 

Mississippi River, discovered, 2 1 ; ex- 
|)lored, 112, 113: problem of trade 
on the, 210; trade agreement with 
regard to, 224; closed to .Americans, 
244; reopened by Louisiana Pur- 
chase, 244; mouth of, deepened, 394 

Missouri, enters as slave state, 258; 
war in, 339, 369 

Missouri Compromise, 257; repeal of, 

323 

:\Iohawk Trail, 30, 228, 277 

Molasses .Act, 135. i3 7 

Money, coined by Massachusetts colony, 
100; paper, of the Revolution, 197; 
first United States Hank, 221, 272 
note; first United States mint. 221 
note; decimal system of coinage 
adopted, 221; Second Hank of the 



I'nited States, 272 and note; how 
raised by North, 338; how raised by 
South, 33S; National banks estab- 
lished, 338 note; specie payment re- 
sumed, 396; silver question, 390, 400 
and note; gold standard adopted, 
407; Federal Reserve Hanks, 424 
note; how raised in World War, 454. 
Sec also Hanks, Coinage of money. 
Free silver. Greenbacks, Mint, 
Wealth 

Monroe. James, negotiates the Louisi- 
ana Purchase, 244; presidency of, 
255-262, 265 note 

jNIonroe Doctrine, 256; and Napoleon 
III, 356, 363, 379. 380; and Vene- 
zuela, 422 note, 430, 431; defied by 
William II, 430, 431; asserted by 
Roosevelt, 431. 432 

Montcalm (montkahm'). General, 129 

Morgan, General, 187 note, 199 

Mormons, 403 note, 504 

Morris, Robert, iSo. 213 

Morse, Samuel I". H., 310 note. Sec 
also Telegraph 

Motor Corps of .America, 461 

^loultrie. Colonel, 171 

Munitions, importation of, 341 and 
note: controversy with Central Em- 
pires over, 440; supply of, in World 
War, 456, 457 

Musgrave, Mary, 90 

Napoleon I, and the United States, 

240, 244, 247, 249; overthrown, 

254; effect of, on European nations, 

428 

National banks, 5S&, note. See also 

Hanks 
National conventions, 283, 284 
National Guard, 425, 451 (note i) 
National League for AVomens Service, 

461 
National Road, 259. Sec also Roads 
Navigation acts, 135, 137, 154 
Navy, of the Revolution, 190; in 179S- 
1799, 240; in iSoi, 243: in. War of 
1S12, 252, 253; what the London 
Times said of United States ships, 
253; Union, 342, 343. 344. 34S. 349. 
j68, 369; Confederate. 344, 345 and 
note, 346, 349, 356; the new (1884 
and after), 411 note; in the Spanish 
War, 412, 413; in the World War, 
452, 453, 474, 476. See also Battles, 
IJlockade, Wars 
Neutrality, Washington's proclamation 
of, 223; Wilsons proclamation of, 

43 7 
Nevada, 406 (note 1) 
New Amsterdam, founded l)y Minuit, 

67; surrenders to English fleet, 73. 

See New York City 



INDEX 



XXXVll 



New England, coast of, explored, 49; 
colonization of, 49-65 ; local sovern- 
ment in, 50, 51, 56, 58, 60, 62; 
eail.N' industries of, 96, 135, 137; 
colonial customs of, 97, 143-146; 
opposes the embargo, 249. Sec also 
lioston. Dominion of New England, 
Independence, Religious liberty. Rev- 
olution (American), Wars, and the 
several New England colonics 

New England Aid Society, 324 

New England Confederation, 105 

New France. Sec France 

New Hampshire, 63; in the Revolution, 
86 

New Haven, colony of, 60; in New 
England Confederation, 105 

New Jersey, first settlement in, 69; 
Swedish settlements in, 69: conquered 
by the Dutch, 71; English coloniza- 
tion of, 78; under Andros, 118; in 
the Revolution, 179, 182, 189; taxes 
the New York lighthouse, 212 

"New Jersey plan," 213 

New Mexico, conquest of, 300: part of 
JMexican cession, 300; and Compro- 
mise of 1850, 304; and irrigation, 
323 note: Mexican invasion of, 425 

New Netherland, claimed by England, 
66; claimed by the Dutch, 67: Man- 
hattan Island purchased, 67; patroons 
in, 68; seized by the English, 72, 
73. Sec also Minuit, New Amster- 
dam, New York, Patroons, Stuy- 
vesant (Governor) 

New Orleans (or'leanz), founded, 114; 
battle of, 252; taken by Farragut, 
349: cotton exhibition at, 395; be- 
comes a great port, 395 

Newspaper, the first in America, 14 1; 
the first in the West, 230; present- 
day, 230 (note i); first cheap daily, 
2S2 

New Sweden. See Delaware 

New York, settled, 67, 68; struggle 
for an assembly, 77; under Andros, 
iiS; Leisler in, 120; assembly 
restored after Revolution of 1688, 
120; in the wars for existence, 123; 
life in colonial, 138, 140; assembly 
suspended by George HI, 160; oppo- 
sition to the king, 160; in the Revo- 
lutionary War, 1 76-1 78, 182-183, 
184-1S7, 194, 197, 201; claim of, 
to Western lands, 206-207: lays taxes 
on trade with New Jersey, 212. See 
also Colonies, Commerce, Canal ( Erie) , 
Indians, Iroquois Indians, New Neth- 
erland, Revolution (.American), Wars 

New York Central Railroad, 32, 277 

New York City, 68, 71; surrenders 
to the English, 73; in 1763, 142; 
opposition to George III in, 160; 



Howe at, 177; Washington retreats 
from, 178; siege of, 189; capital of 
the United States, 216; Washington 
inaugurated at, 216; population of, 
227: our chief commercial city, 262; 
and the Erie Canal, 263 

Nonintercourse Act, 249 

North, the, beginning of, 76, 77; manu- 
factures of, in early times, 96; cause 
of towns in, 98; develops commer- 
cial life, 138, 142: colonial life in, 
142, 144-147; mainly industrial, 
2S7 note; more populous than the 
South, 267 note; rivalry with the 
South for Kansas, 324; generally con- 
demns John Brown, 328; controls 
Congress, 328, 329; feeling toward 
the South in 1861, 335; at war with 
the South, 335-396. Sec also Bal- 
ance of the sections in Congress, 
Manufactures, Railways, Slavery, 
Tariff, Wars 

North (Carolina, part of earliest Vir- 
ginia, 24; part of Carolina, 83; first 
permanent settlements in, 85; sepa- 
rated from South Carolina, 87; re- 
ceives Bacon's followers, 103; Cul- 
peper's Rebellion in, 103; in the 
wars for existence, 123; in the Revo- 
lution, 195, 199; secedes, 336; re- 
admitted, 377. Sec also Carolina 

Northwest, explored by the French, 
II I ; during the Revolution, 190- 
193; posts in the, held by the Brit- 
ish, 224 note; Indian wars in the, 
27s; settlement of the, 275 

Northwest passage, 67 

Northwest Territory, 207 

Nova Scotia, 128 note 

Nueces (nuay'ses) River, 297 

Nullification in South Carolina, 268, 
271, 292. See also Calhoun 

Oberlin, first coeducational college, 279 
Ocean steamships, 246 (note 2) 
Ogden, railroads meet near, 3 84 
Oglethorpe, James, 89-91, 123, 124 
Ohio, first settlement in, 207; Cin- 
cinnati founded, 207; Cleveland 
founded, 208; Indian wars in, 229; 
land set apart for schools in, 230 
Ohio Company, 124 note 
Ohio country, importance of, in the 
Seven Years' War, 124; duel of 
France and England for, 124-128; 
Clark's expedition to the, 191-193 
Oil, first well, 388 (note i); conserva- 
tion of, 536 
Oklahoma, opened to settlement, 403; 

rapid growth of, 403, 404 
"Old Hickory," 269 
"Old Ironsides," 253 note 
Old North Church, 165 



xxxviii SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Opechancanough (o pek an kah'no), loo 
"Open door" in China, 416, 431 
Oregon, discovered by Drake, 24; 
Captain Gray in. 245 note; our 
claim to, 295 and note; Dr. Whit- 
man and, 296; treaty with Eng- 
land concerning, 296; free soil, 304 
note; s-tale of. 329 
Oregon Trail, 489 
Oriskany (o ris'ka ny), 184 
Osceola (oseo'lah), 257 (.note i) 
Otis, James, 158 

Pacific, discovered by Balboa, 16; ex- 
plored by Magellan, 16; extension 
of the United States to the, 296; 
telegraph cable across, 379 note; 
pony express to the, 383: stagecoach 
line to the, 383; telegraph line to 
the, 383; railway completed to, 384; 
our possessions in the, 413, 414, 486 

Pacific railroads, grants to, 384 

Packet ships, 3 12 

Palmer, Alice Freeman, 508 

Palmerslon, Lord, and American affairs, 
355, 357 

Panama Canal, 417, 418 and note 

Panama, Republic of, 418 

Pan-.\merican Union, 423 note 

Panic of 1837, 292, 293 and note 

Paper money, 197, 221 (note i), 338, 
396. Sec also Banks, Money 

Parcel post, 494 

Paris, peace conference at, 525 

Parliament, at war with Charles I, 44; 
executes the king. 44: sends commis- 
sioners to the colonies, 44; activity 
of, in seventeenth century. 104; in 
eighteenth century, 156; landholders 
in, 156: how controlled by George 
III, 156 

"Parliamentary law," 521 

Patroons (patroonz'), 68 

Peace Convention, 336 note 

Peggy Stewart, tea ship, burned, 162 

Pekin and the Boxers, 416 note 

Peninsular campaign, 351 

Penn, William, and New Jersey. 78; 
Lord Proprietor of Pennsylvania. 79; 
ideas of government, 80: treatment 
of Indians, 81: Proprietor of Dela- 
ware, 82. See also Pennsylvania 

Pennsylvania, granted to Penn, 79: 
boundary dispute with Maryland. 79 
note; colony settled. 80-S2; Frame 
of Government, 80; and Mason and 
Dixon's line. 80 note; mines in, 97; 
middle colonial life in, 146, 147; elec- 
trical inventions in, 147; Franklin 
in, 149; in Revolution, 164, 170, 173, 
180, 181, 183, 187, 188, 189. Sec 
also Coal, Congress, Gettysburg, 
Revolution (American) 



Pepperell (pep'erel). Colonel, 124 

Pequots (pe'riuotz), war with, 100 

Perry, O. H., victory on Lake Erie, 
253 

Pershing, Cieneral, 465, 468 

"Personal liberty laws," 321 

"Pet banks," 293 note 

Petersburg, 365, 367 

Petroleum discovered, 388 note 

Philadelphia founded, 81; largest colo- 
nial city, 143; Continental Congress 
meets at, 164; Declaration of In- 
dependence signed at, 173; capital of 
the United States, 183; captured by 
the British, 183; competes with New 
York for Western trade, 260; Cen- 
tennial Exposition at, 389 

Philippines, Spanish War begins in the, 
412; ceded to the L'nited States by 
Spain, 413; government of, 415, 416 

Pickens, Colonel, 104 

Pickett, General, at Gettysburg, 35S- 
359 

Pierce, Franklin, presidency of, 322- 

325 

Pike, Zebulon M., 245 

Pilgrims, or Separatists, in England 
and Holland, 49, 50; land at 
Plymouth, 50; form of government, 
50, 51; relations with the Indians, 
51; establish Thanksgiving Day, 52; 
how they diflered from the Puritans, 
53; unite with Massachusetts Colony, 
53. 120 

Pinckney, C. C, minister to France, 
13s note, 240 

Pinckney, Charles. 213 

Pinckney, Mrs. Charles. See Lucas, 
Eliza 

Pirates constant danger to colonists, 
86. 99 

Pitt, William, Lord Chatham, 12S, 156, 
159, 160 

Pittsburgh, formerly Fort Duquesne, 
127, 128 (note 2); Clark at. 191; 
westward movement through, 228 

Pizarro in Peru, 20 

Plantation system, introduction of, 31, 
82; in eighteenth century, 139; in 
nineteenth century, 267, 323, 361; 
breaks down during reconstruction, 
378; disappearance of, 493 

Plymouth, settled, 50; annexed to Mas- 
sachusetts, 53, 120 

Plymouth Company, 34 note 

Pocahontas (po ka hon'tas), 35, 36 

Poets, American, 282, 313, 314 

Poland. 438, 526, 529, 530 

Poles in the Revolution, 188 

Political parties, rise of, 221 and note, 
265 note, 272, 273, 294 and note i, 
325 note; Republican (original party, 
1792) (sec Democrats); Repul)lican 



INDEX 



XXXIX 



(modern party, 1856), 325, 326; 
" Gold Democrats," 407 ; Progres- 
sive, 423 

Polk (poke), James K., presidency of, 
296-303 

Ponce de Leon (pon thay day lay ohn'), 
20 

Pontiac's (pon'teak) conspiracy, 130 

Pony express, 383 

Pope, General, 353, 354 

Population, westward movement of, 131, 
207, 208, 228, 229, 259, 260, 275, 
291, 296, 302, 382, 383, 384; of the 
colonies, 141, 143, 227; growth of, 
in cities, 227, 536, 537, 538; growth 
of, to 1850, 308: how made up, 518- 
521. 5'ff'fl/io American people, Census 

Portland, Maine, 170 

Portland, Oregon, 244 

Porto Rico annexed, 413 

Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 64; treaty 
of, 420 note 

Portuguese, early voyages of, 11, 12 
and note 

Postage, colonial period, 140: modern 
rate, 455; in World War, 455 

Potato famine, 309 

Potomac, Army of the, 351 

Powhatan (pow hah tan'), 100 

Presbi'terians in Georgia, 91 

Prescott. Colonel, 168 

President, office of, 214, 511, 516, 576; 
change in method of electing, 239 
note, 511 note; Presidential Succes- 
sion Act, 517 and note 

Princeton University, 140 

Printing press, Franklin's, 146; rotary, 
invented, 310 

Prison reform, 312 

Privateers in the Revolution, 100 

Proclamation of rebellion, George Ill's, 
170; of neutrality, 223; of emancipa- 
tion, 357; of pardon, 374 

Proclamation line, 158 

Products, colonial, 32, 37, 52, 85, 96, 
1.55 

Profiteering, 53 i 

Prohibition, in Georgia, 91; in Maine, 
2 S3 note; national amendment es- 
tablishes, 283 note. Sec also Tem- 
perance cause 

Proprietary, Lords, 83 

Proprietary colony, description of, 40, 
41. 63, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83. 89 

Protestants, freedom of worship secured 
to all, 105, 148 

Providence founded, 6r 

Province, great, designed bv Tames II, 
118 

Proviso (pro vi'zo), Wilmot, 300 

Prussia, 42S, 429. Sec also German 
Empire 

Pulaski, (pu las'ki). Count, 188 note 



Pullman strike, 401. Sec also Strikes 
Puritans, forbidden to hold services in 
Virginia, 43; welcomed to Maryland, 
43; origin of, 53; why they came to 
I^Iassachusetts, 54; government of 
Massachusetts by, 55; do not be- 
lieve in toleration, 56; expel Roger 
Williams and ]Mrs. Hutchinson, S7; 
establish schools, 58; relations ;With 
Cambridge L^niversity, 58; enter 
Connecticut valley, 58. Sec also 
Colonies, Religious liberty. Suffrage 
Putnam, General, 172, 207 

Quakers, or Friends, persecuted in i\Lis- 
sachusetts, 62 ; befriended in Rhode 
Island, 62; in New Jersey, 78; found 
Pennsylvania, 79-81; in Delaware, 
82; in Carolina, 84, Sec also Penn, 
William 

Quebec, founded, no; taken by the 
English, 129 

Quebec Act, 162 

Railways, beginnings of, in America, 
276; first increase of, 309; effect of, 
in uniting the country, 315; other 
Western, 384 note; first transcon- 
tinental railway, 387; restrained by 
Congress, 388 (note 3); strikes on, 
during World War, 458. See Strikes 

Raleigh (raw'le) sends expedition to 
Virginia, 24 

Rankin, Jeanette,_ first woman member 
of National House of Representa- 
tives, 510 

Rapidan (rape dan') River, 363 

Reaper, invention of the horse, 278 

Reconstruction (after the Civil War), 
373-376; condition of life during, 
3 77, 378, 393; Act of Amnesty, 
393 ; President Hayes withdraws 
troops from Southern states, 394. 
See also Amendments, Freedmen, 
Representation, Suffrage 

Reconstruction Act, 376 

Red Cross Society, 455 

Referendum (ref er en'dum), 514 

Reforestation, 404, 405 

Religious liberty, desire for, a cause of 
emigration, 53 ; extended to all Chris- 
tians in Maryland, 41; little, in Eng- 
land under James I, 41,49; restricted 
in Virginia, 43 ; sought by Pilgrims, 
49, 50; large degree of, in Plymouth, 
so; demanded by Puritans in Mas- 
sachusetts, 55; greater, in Connecti- 
cut, 60; complete, in Rhode Island, 
61; denied to Quakers, 62; granted 
to Quakers, 62 ; secured to all Prot- 
estants, IDS, 148; provisions of the 
Constitution regarding, 148. See also 
Catholics, Pilgrims. Puritans, Quakers' 



xl 



SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Representation (colonial), 39, 41. 51 
note, 60, 77, 80, 104 and note; ques- 
tion of, in flaming the Constitution 
213, 214, 516; of North and South, 
2S&, 267 note, 328, 329; in Congress, 
374. 376, 377. 393, 394 {sec Table 
in Appendix); effect of the census 
on, 512; and the federal ratio, 512 

Representative government, first in 
America, 39; in Maryland, 41; in 
New Kngland, 51 note, 104 note 

Republicans, first party of that name, 
221 and note 3, 223, 224, 239, 
241, 242, 249, 255, 265, 273 (sec 
also Democrats); origin of the mod- 
ern party, 325; oppose the extension 
of slavery, 326, 329; condemn the 
John Hrown raid, 329; elect presi- 
dents, 320, 384, 392, 397, 402, 407, 
416, 418, 421, 529; reestablish pro- 
tective tariff, 338 

Revere (re veer'), Paul, 165 

Revolution, American, causes and events 
of, 153-203; sea power in, 176, 1S2, 
190, 194, 200; strategy of, 176, 194, 
196, 201; foreign help in, 188-190, 
194, 198, 200-202; money of the, 
197; independence acknowledged, 202 

Revolution of 1688, 119, 120, 148 note 

Revolution of 1848, 314, 429 

Rheims, 466 

Rhode Island, settled, 6r; befriends the 
Quakers, 62; in the Revolution, 161. 
Sec also Williams, Roger 

Rice introduced into South Carolina, 86 

Richmond, the Confederate capital, 337; 
battles around, 35^. 353, 364, 367 
(see also Battles); occupied Ijy the 
Union army, 367 

Richmond, Duke of, 156, 172 

"Right of search," 248 

Rights, of Englishmen in seventeenth 
century, 104; guaranteed to colonists, 
104; five important, 104, 105; of 
Americans in eighteenth century, 105 
note; what Americans believed to be 
their, 154, 159, 164; of Americans 
under the Constitution, 214, 215. 
See also British Empire, United 
States 

Rights, Declaration of, 160, 164; states', 
241, 268, 270, 315, 316, 328, 329 

Rivers, value of, in colonization, 69, 
8s; in war, 347 

Roads, 30, 140, 229; across the East- 
ern mountains, 228-229; across the 
continent, 488-493 

Roanoke, settlement of, 24 

Rochambeau, (leneral, 202 

Rockefeller, John D.. 388 

Rockingham, Marquis of, 156, 202 

Rodman. Admiral, 452 

Rolfe, John, 36 



Roman Catholic. See Catholics 

Roosevelt (roze'velt), Theodore, in war 
with Spain, 412, 414; elected vice 
president, 416; presidency of, 417- 
421; as Progressive candidate, 423; 
and William II, 431, 432 

"Roosevelt policies," 420, 421 

Root, Elihu, 422 

Rosecrans(ro'zekranz), General, 350, 363 

" Rough Riders," 412 

Royal province, description of, 40; Vir- 
ginia becomes first, 40; New Hamp- 
shire as, 63; New York as, 77; New 
Jersey as, 78; North Carolina as, 87; 
South Carolina as, 87; Georgia as, 
89; Massachusetts as, 120 

Rumania, 438, 526 

Rural free delivery, 494 

Russia, claims Oregon, 295 note; sells 
us Alaska, 379; in World War. 432, 
433, 434. 438, 463; after World 
War, 526, 530, 531 

Sacajawea, 244 

St. .Augustine (aw'gus teen), 22 

St. Lawrence River discovered, 109 

St. Leger (sant lej'er), 184, 186 

St. Louis, 192, 369; exposition at, 405 

St. Mihiel (san me yel'), 467, 468 

St. Pierre (sanpeeer'), 130 

Salem settled, 55 

Salt Lake City founded, 403 (note i) 

Salvation Army in World War, 462 

Samoan (samo'an) Islands, trouble 
with Germany over, 430 

Samoset, 5 1 

Sampson, Admiral, 412 

San Francisco, deserted for the gold 
fields, 301, 302; exposition at, 405; 
earthquake at, 420 

Sanitary Commission, 360 

Santa Anna, 291, 292 

Santa Ee Trail, 489 

Santiago (san te ah'go), 412 

Saratoga, 187 

Sa\annah founded, 90; attacked" l)y 
French and Americans, 194; taken 
iiy General Sherman, 366 

Savannah, 246 (note 2) 

Schenectady (skenek'tah de), F'rench at- 
tack on, 12 I 

Schley (sly). Admiral, 412 

Schools, public, established in Massa- 
chusetts, 58; in the West, 230; in 
'790, 230; and Americanization, 520, 
538; compulsory, 538. Sec also Col- 
leges, Education 

Schurz, Carl, 314, 429 

Schuyler (sky'Ier), General, 187 

Schwab, Charles M., 455 

Scotch in Pennsylvania, 81 

Scott, General, 253, 271; in war with 
Mexico, 298 



INDEX 



xli 



"Scrap of paper," 434 

Sea power, value of, 157, 177, 182, 1S3, 
i94i 19s. 200, 201 

Seals, protection of, 422 

Secession, from the Union, threats of, 
268; upheld as right, 270; denounced 
by Webster, 271; Jackson on, 271; 
South Carolina secedes, 332; South- 
ern opposition to, 334; ten other 
states secede, 334-336 

Sedan, American flag raised over, 471 

Sedition Act, 240 

Selectixe draft, 450 

Self-government, 520; and Americani- 
zation, 520 

Seminole (sem'inole) Wars, 257 (notei) 

Senate of the United States, 213, 512, 
516; balance of states in, 258 (note 
2), 328, 329 

Separatists. See Pilgrims 

Serbia, 432, 433, 434, 526 

Seven Years' War in Europe and Amer- 
ica, 127-130 

Sevier (sev eer'), John, 19S, 208, 209 

Seward (su'ard), William 11., 322, 335 
note, 379; and Confederate commis- 
sioners, 33 5 note 

Sewing machine, 310 

Shadrach (shay'drak), rescue of, 321 

Shays's Rebellion, 2 1 1 note 

Shenandoah (shen an do'ah) Valley, 312, 
352, 365 note 

Sheridan, General, 365 (note 2) 

Sherman, General W. T., and the Mexi- 
can War, 255; in command in the 
West, 363; campaign in Georgia, 365, 
366; march of, through the Carolinas, 
367; surrender of Confederates to, 
368 

Sherman, Roger, 213 

Sherman Silver Act, 406 note 

Shipbuilding, in colonial times, 96, 145; 
in nineteenth century, 312; during 
World War, 458 

Shipping Board, 458 

Shipping problem, 532 

Silver, Bland-Allison Act and coinage of 
silver dollars, 396, 406 note; free 
coinage of, made impossible, 407 

"Silver Democrats," 406, 407 

Sims, Admiral, 452 

Sioux (soo) Indians, 386 

Six Nations, no; tribes of, 134. See 
also Iroquois Indians 

Slater, Samuel, 234 

Slave trade, in early times, 98, 137; 
foreign, prohibited, 214 note; statis- 
tics of, 258 note 

Slavery, beginning of, in Virginia, 39; 
temporarily excluded from Georgia, 
90; introduced into Georgia, 91; in 
earl}- South, 97; spreads through all 
the colonies, 98; early opposition to, 



137 (note i); excluded from North- 
west Territory, 207 note; and the 
Constitution, 214 note; and represen- 
tation in Congress, 214 note; impor- 
tation of slaves forbidden, 214 note; 
effect of cotton gin on, 233; abolition 
of, in Northern states, 257 note; 
discussion of Western extension of, 
257; Jefferson opposes the extension 
of, 280; Dr. Channing's proposition 
concerning, 280; Garrison attacks, 
28 1 ; Webster and Lincoln on, 281 
note; formation of abolition societies, 
281; annexation of Texas and, 292; 
question of opening California and 
New Mexico to, 301; action of Cali- 
fornians on, 304; "personal liberty 
laws," 321; struggle over, in Kansas, 
324, 325; Republican party opposes 
extension of, 326; English attitude 
toward, 356, 357; international sig- 
nificance of, 356, 357; Lincoln's early 
attitude toward, 357 note; Lincoln's 
letter to Greeley about, 357 note; 
abolished by Southern state govern- 
ments, 375; universally abolished by 
the Thirteenth Amendment, 375. See 
also Abolition, Fugitive slaves. Re- 
construction 

Slidell (sly del') and Mason, 343 

Slums, 509, 535, 537 

Smith, Captain John, 35, 36, 49 

Smith, General Kirby, 340, 369 

Smuts, General, 438 

"Sons of Liberty," 159 

South, the, beginning of, 76, 77; agri- 
culture of early, 95, 96; country life 
in, 97; develops plantation system, 
139, 143; in the Revolution, 159, 
164, 170, 171, 173, 191, 192, 193, 
194, 195, 196, 198-200; and tariff, 
267; nullification in, 268, 269, 271; 
and Texas, 292; and California, 304; 
why the South wanted new slave 
states, 323, 329; attempts of, to re- 
cover the balance in the Senate, 329; 
and election of i860, 329; Southern 
Confederacy formed, 334; reconstruc- 
tion of the seceded states, 374-378, 
392; withdrawal of Union troops 
from, 394; progress of, since the Civil 
War, 395, 396; soldiers of, in Spanish- 
American War, 415 

South America, Spanish colonies in, 255 ; 
protected by Monroe Doctrine, 256 

South Carolina, part of Carolina, 83; 
under Proprietaries, 83-85 ; rebels 
against Proprietaries, 87; separated 
from North Carolina, 87; in the wars 
for existence, 113, 123; and the tariff, 
2 68; and nullification, 268; secedes, 
332; readmitted, 377. Sec also Caro- 
lina 



xlii SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Southern commissioners at WashiiiRton, 
335 note 

"Southern Cross," 333 

Southerners invade Spanish Florida, 123 

Spain, divides the world with PortUKai, 
12 note; aids Colunilnis, 14; claims 
the New World, 15, 20-22; rivalry 
with France, 22; rivalry with Eng- 
land, 23-25; threatens Southern 
colonies, 86; ally of France, 122, 123, 
131; acquires Louisiana, 131; cedes 
Florida to England, 131: declares war 
on England, 189; recovers F'lorida, 
202; and the Mississippi problem, 
210; treaty with United States, 223- 
224; cedes Louisiana to France, 244; 
loses South American colonies, 255; 
and our Western boundary, 256; 
cedes Florida to the United States, 
257 

Spanish-American War, 412, 413 

Specie Circular, 293 note 

Specie payment, resumption of, 396 

Spinning machines, 2,53 

"Spoils system" established, 269 

Stagecoach, in colonial times, 139; to 
California. 383 

Stamp Act. 158, 159; repealed, 164 

Stamp .Act Congress, 160 

Standard of living, 496 

Standard Oil Company, 388 

Standish, Captain Miles, 51, 52 

Stark, General, 186 

"Stars and liars," 333 

"Stars and Stripes," 184 note 

States' rights, and Virginia and Ken- 
tucky Resolutions, 241: and the tar- 
iff controversy, 268; and the Great 
Debate, 270; about 1850, 315, 316; 
about i860, 328. 329 

Steamships, first one to cross Atlantic, 
246 (note 2) 

Stephens, .Alexander. IF, 334 and note 

Stephenson, (Jeorge, 276 note 

Steuben (stoo'ben), Haron, 188 

"Stonewall" Jackson. Src Jackson, 
General Thomas J. 

Stonington, loi 

Strikes: the Chicago. 400; the Home- 
stead, 400; the Pullman, 401; the 
hard-coal, 401; efforts to do away 
with, 401, 402, 500, 501, 531, 532; 
recent, 531. Sec also Labor 

Stuart. General, 364 (note i ) 

Stuyvesant (sty've sant), Governor. 71, 
72 

Submarine, first, 190 note; Confeder- 
ate, 345 note; use of, in World War, 
439, 445. 452 

Suffrage, restricted. 168; demand for 
popular. 168. 243, 280; manhood, 
243, 280; granted to negroes, 376, 
377; white, restricted in South, 376, 



393; negro, restricted in South, 394; 
woman, 510, 511; and the Aus- 
tralian ballot, 5 IS 

Sugar, colonial trade in, 137 

Sumner, Charles, 322; sustains Lincoln 
in Trnil afiair, 344; inlluences Lin- 
coln to issue Emancipation Proclama- 
tion, 357 

Sumter, Fort, 334, 335, 368 

Sumter, General, 196 

Supreme Court, established. 214: Mar- 
shall Chief Justice of, 241; purpose 
of, 517 

Sussex, the, 442 

Sutter's (soo'ter) Mill, California, 301 

Swedes settle Delaware, 69, 70 

Taft, William H., presidency of, 421, 
422; and League of Nations, 528 

Tariff, the first, 219; protective, de- 
fined, 266; what caused first, 266; 
Xorth and South disagree about, 266, 
267; and nullification, 268, 271; 
Clay's compromise, 272; high, re- 
vived, 338; opposition to war, 397, 
39S; McKinley protective, 398 

"Tariff of .Abominations," 267, 268 

Tarleton, Sir Banastre, 199 

Taxation, English theory of. T04; 
colonies claim right of self-, 104, 148, 
154; by the United States, 219 (sec 
also Tariff); on foreign vessels, 219; 
during <'ivil War, 338; of incomes, 
454 note; in World War, 454 

Taylor, General Z., 297, 298; presi- 
dency of, 304, 320 

Tecumseh's (tecum'seh) conspiracy, 
250 

Te'egraph, invented, 310 and note; At- 
lantic cable laid, 379; Pacific cab!e 
laid, 379 note; across the continent, 
383 

Telephone, in World War, 457; effect 
of. on farm life, 494 

Temperance cause, in Georgia, 91; first 
temperance society, 283; prohibition 
in Elaine, 283 note; prohibition 
amendment to Constitution, 283 note 

Tennessee settled, 158 (note 2); sends 
soldiers to King's Mountain, 198; 
part of North Carolina, 208; state 
of Franklin, 209; becomes a state, 
209; secedes, 336; war in, 346, 348, 
350, 363; readmitted. 376; ratifies 
Nineteenth .Amendment, 511 

Texas, as part of Mexico, 291; war of 
independence in, 291-292; migra- 
tion from United States to, 292; and 
slavery, 292; enters our Union, 295; 
boundary dispute with Mexico, 297; 
present boundaries fixed. 304 note; 
secedes, 334; separate war in, 368, 
369; readmitted, 377 



INDEX 



xliii 



Thomas, General, 340, 367 

Thrift stamps, 455 

Ticonderoga taken by Ethan Allen, 167 
note; retaken by the British, 186 

Tilden-Hayes disputed election, 392 

Tobacco, grown by the Indians, 32; 
brought to England from Virginia, 
37; cultivation of, begins in Virgmia, 
37, 38 

Toombs, Robert, 322 

Tories, English poli-tical party, 156; 
American, 169; fail to control Conti- 
nental Congress, 170; take up arms 
in America, 171; defeated at Moore's 
Creek, 171; enteistain royal army, 
187; aid Cornwallis in the South, 
194, 19s note; deprived of property, 
205 note; driven out of the country, 
205 note 

Toscanelli, 14 

Town meeting in the colonies, 50, 51 

Towns, early colonial, 97; local gov- 
ernment by, 51 

Townshend (toun'zend) Acts, 161 

Trade, of Europe with Asia in the fif- 
teenth century, 11, 12; Columbus 
seeks, with the Indies, 14; English, 
with the Indians, 29; intercolonial, 
8s, 96; foreign, of the colonies, 135; 
Western, 135, 224, 230; Asiatic, 312, 
416; present, 497, 498. Sec also 
Cotton, Fur trade, Rice, Tobacco, 
Whale trade 

Trades unions, 389, 399, 498 

Trails, 30, 228, 229, 4S8, 490 

Transportation, colonial, 97, 139. 140; 
through the forests, 230; by water, 
259-262; railway, 276, 277, 309; 
to the Pacific coast, 383, 3S4, 492; 
electric, 496. See also Commerce, 
Exports, Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission, Railways, Roads, Steam- 
ships 

Transylvania University, 230 

Travel, 139; to the West, 260, 488, 
489 

Treasury, independent, 294 

Treaties: with Indians, 42, 67, 70, 79, 
81, 90; England with France. 130: 
United Slates with France, 188, 243; 
United States with England, 202,234, 
250, 29s, 296, 356 (note i); United 
States with Spain, 224, 256, 257, 
413; Jay's treaty with England, 224; 
United States with Tripoli, 244; 
United States with Mexico, 300; 
United States with Japan, 223; 
United States with Russia, 379, 395 
note: United States with Hawaii, 413: 
Russia with Japan, 420 note: recent 
arbitration, 423; Germany with Rus- 
sia, 463; treaty of Versailles, 525, 
526 



Trench warfare, 437, 469 

Trent affair, 343 

Tripoli (trip'ole), war with, 243 and 

note 
Trotzky, 433 
Troy Female Seminary, first advanced 

school for girls, 279 
Trusts, 388 and note 
Turkey in World War, 438, 473 
Tuscarora (tus ka roh'ra) Indians, war 

with, 123; join the Five Nations, 134 

note. See also Iroquois Indians 
Tyler, John, presidency of, 294-296 

"Uncle Tom's Cabin," 322 

''Underground Railroad," 321 

Unemployed, following Revolution, 211 
note; problem of, during reconstruc- 
tion, 375 ; in cities, 537 

Union of American states, 173; Articles 
of Confederation, 207; under the Con- 
stitution, 213; rights of states in the, 
241; Supreme Court and the, 241; 
versus state sovereignty, 241, 268, 
328; nullification and the (1832), 
268; threats of secession from the, 
268; Webster's speech in behalf of 
the, 271; Jackson determines to save 
the, 271; effect of railways on the, 
316: Lincoln on the, 335: Lincoln's 
letter on saving the, 357; "an 
indestructible Union composed of in- 
destructible states," 378. See also 
America, Nullification, Reconstruc- 
tion, Secession, Slavery, United 
States, Wars 

Union League, 395 

Union Pacific Railway, 3S4 

I'nions, labor, 389, 399, 498 

United States, area of, claimed by 
Stuart kings, S3'- physical geography 
of, 109, 484, 485; independence de- 
clared, 173; independence secured, 
202; attempts to form a new gov- 
ernment in, 207, 212, 213; sectional 
struggle within (see States' rights. 
Slavery, Wars) ; government organ- 
ized, 219; growth of. 482, 483, 486; 
development of the territory of, 486- 
488: movements of population in, 
487-488; roads of, 488; farm life 
in, 494, 495: agricultural develop- 
ment of, 495 ; business development 
of, 495-498; labor problems of, 
498-501; science and invention in, 
501, 502; education in. 503: re- 
ligion in, 503, 504; literature in, 504, 
505; art in, 505. 506: position of 
women in. 508-511; government of, 
51 1-5 17; the people of, 518-521 

Utah, settled by Mormons, 403 (note 
i); prosperity of, 403 (notei); 
woman suffrage in, 510 note 



xliv SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Valley Forge, 187, 188, 189 

Van Huren, Martin, 273; presidency of, 
292-294 

Van Dorn, General, 339, 350 

Vasco da Gama, 12 

Venezuela (ven e zwe'lah), boundary dis- 
pute, 422 (note 2); dispute with Ger- 
many, 431, 432 

Venice and trade with Asia, 1 1 

Vera Cruz (vay'rah kroos), 424 

Verdun, 437 

Vermont, declares itself independent, 186 
note; establishes manhood suffrage, 
280 

Versailles, treaty of, 525, 526; opposi- 
tion to, 526-529 

Vespucius, Americus, 16 

Veto, the king's, 147; the president's, 517 

Victory Loan, 455 

Vigilance Committee in California, 303 

Villa, 424, 425 

Virgin Islands, 4S6 

Virginia, Raleigh attempts to colonize, 
24; first white child born in, 24; 
aid from the Indians, 35; hardships 
of first settlers, 35, 36; reforms in, 
37; cultivation of tobacco in, 37; 
representative assembly established, 
39; a royal province, 40; Cavaliers 
in, 45; Great Massacre in. 100; In- 
dian war in, 102; Jamestown burned, 
103; in the wars for existence, 123; 
Patrick Henry's speeches in, 160, 
164; proposes Continental Congress, 
164; in revolt against the king, 170; 
declares itself independent, 173; in 
Revolutionary War, 191-193, i95 
note, 199 note, 201-202; claims 
Western lands, 206; attempts to abol- 
ish slavery, 336; secedes, 336; 
war in, 339, 340, 34.S, 35 '-354. 357- 
359. 363-364, 367; readmitted to the 
Union, 377 

Virginia. Sec Merrimac 

V'irginia Bounty Lands, 207 

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 241 

"Virginia Plan," 2 13 

Volunteers in war, 335, 359 note 

Vote. See Suffrage 

Wake Island, 486 

Waldseemiiller (valf zay meel er), 16 

War hawks, 250 note 

War Labor Board, 456 note 

War Savings Stamps, 455 

Wars: Colonial period — war in Florida 
between French and Spanish, 22; 
civil war in Maryland, 44: Dutch 
with Swedes, 70; English with Dutch, 
72; colonists with Indians, 100-102. 
Wars jor existence — colonists and 
British government with French, 
Spaniards, and Indians, 1 21-130. 



Revolution, 166-202. Since the Rev- 
olution to 1S65 — -with Indians, 183, 
252, 256, 257, 275; with France, 
240; with Tripoli, 243 and note; 
with England, 251-254; Texan war, 
292; Mexican War, 297-300; be- 
tween the North and the South, 332- 
369. From I H6 5 to present time — with 
Sioux Indians, 386; with Spain, 411- 
413 

Washington, George, as a young man, 
126; sent with message to the French, 
126; at Great Meadows, 127; at 
Fort Necessity, 127; accompanies 
Rraddock's expedition, 127; member 
of First Continental Congress, 164; 
commander of the Continental army, 
170; in the Revolution, 170-189, 194, 
196-199, 201, 202; in the Consti- 
tutional Convention, 212; elected 
president, 215-216; forms his cabi- 
net, 219; proclamation of neutrality, 
223; and Genet, 223; sends Jay to 
England, 224; farewell address, 225; 
ideas of manners, 236; death, 241 

Washington, John, cavalier, emigrates 
to Virginia, 45 

Washington, I). C, made national capi- 
tal, 236, 242 ; captured by British, 251 

Wayne, General, 194, 229 

Wealth of early colonists, 98; of later 
colonists, 138, 139, 146; and manu- 
factures, 497 

Weather Bureau, 495 

Webster, Daniel, 271; disagrees with 
Garrison. 281 note; resigns as Sec- 
retary of State, 295; denounces se- 
cession, 317; death, 322 

Webster, Noah, dictionary of, 283 

Webster-.Ashburton Treaty, 295 

Welfare drive in World War, 504 

Wellesley College, 508 

Wells, Dr. Horace. 314 

Wesley, Charles, 92 

Wesley, John, 92 

Wcslexan College, Macon. Sec Georgia 
Female College 

West, Spanish explorations in, 21, 22; 
French in the, 111-114; French fight 
to hold the, 124-128; Ohio Company 
and the, 124 note; struggle for the 
Ohio V^illey, 124, 125; acquired by 
the English, 131; importance in our 
history, 131; early settlements be- 
vond the mountains, 158 note; and 
the Proclamation Line, 159; con- 
cjuered by Clark, 191-193; claimed 
by several states, 206-207; Revolu- 
tionary soldiers settle the, 207, 208; 
life of the, 209-210; first clash with 
the East, 210; satisfied with Spanish 
treaty, 223-224; population flows 
into the, 228, 229; education in the, 



INDEX 



xlv 



230, 279; life in the early, 230; pur- 
chase of Louisiana Territory, 244; 
transportation in the, 246, 247; de- 
sire to reach the, 259-262; rapid 
growth of the, 275, 278, 386;. effect 
of liberal laws on the, 278, 385, 
386; coeducation a Western product, 
279; importance of the. reaper in, 
280; demands manhood suffrage, 
280; Oregon added to the, 296, 297; 
IMexican land cessions in the, 300; 
emigration to California, 302; the 
"New West," 365; character of 
migration to, 38^; earliest malls to, 
383; railroads and the, 384, 385, 
388; new life of the, 385, 3S6; end 
of the Indian danger, 386; general 
review of progress in, 480-493. See 
also x\grlculture, Cities, Crops, Emi- 
gration, Farms, Kansas, Land, Mines, 
Railways, Slavery, Territories 

West Indies, Danish. See Virgin Islands 

West Virginia, 337 note, 339 

Western Front in World War, 437 

Westward movement, 131, 135, 207, 208, 
228, 229, 382, 383, 385. 386, 486, 492 

Weyler, General, 410 

Whale trade, 137 

Wheeler, General Joseph, 415 

Whigs, American political party, prin- 
ciples of, 272, 273, 293; Henry Clay 
leader of the, 272; advocate the 
United States Bank, 273; origin of, 
273; elect Harrison and Tyler, 294; 
and Mexican War, 297 note; elect 
Taylor president, 304; death of, 325 
note 

Whigs, English political party, 156, 
157; repeal Stamp Act, 160; name 
taken by American reformers, 16S; 
views of American, 168; control 
second Continental Congress, 170; 
British, return to power, 202 

Whltlock, Brand, 439 

Whitman, Dr., and Oregon, 296 

Whitney, Ell, invents cotton gin, 233 

"Wilderness Trail," 229, 488 

Willard, Frances, woman-suffrage leader, 
510 

William and Mary proclaimed king and 
queen, 120 

William and Mary College, 140 

Williams, Roger, belief in "soul lib- 
erty," 56; banished, 57; founds Prov- 
idence, 61; establishes entire religious 
liberty, 61; founds the American 
Baptist Church, 62 

Wilmot Proviso (pro vi' zo), 300, 301 

Wilson, Woodrow, administration of, 
423-425; proclamation of neutral- 
ity, 429; note to Austria, 440; note 
on the Lusitania, 442 ; note on the 
Sussex, 442; second election, 443; 



dismisses Von Bernstorff, 443; pub- 
lishes Zimmermann dispatch, 444; 
calls on Congress to make the world 
safe for democracy, 445; race be- 
tween Von Hindenburg and, 465; 
congratulates Foch, 465 ; advocates 
woman suffrage, 510, 511; his speech 
of the Fourteen Points, 525; at the 
Peace Conference, 525; leader of 
movement for a league of nations, 
528; and the Polish problem, 530; 
and the Russian problem, 530 

Winslow, John, 120 

Winthrop, Governor, 55, 60 

Wisconsin, explored by French, in; 
Indian wars in, 275; first state to 
ratify Nineteenth Amendment, 511 

Wolfe (wolf). General, 129 

Woman suffrage, 510, 511 

Women, activities of, in colonial period, 
14s, 146; In frontier life, 229, 230, 
290; education of, 235; part of, in 
war, 359-362, 455, 460-462; new 
education for, 379; new activities of, 
508, 509, 510; in recent American 
affairs, 508, 511; acquire full suf- 
frage, 511 

Women in America: Pocahontas be- 
friends the English, 35; Mrs. Brent 
claims a seat in the Maryland Assem- 
bly, 42 ; Mrs. Hutchinson leads a 
religious movement in Massachusetts, 
57; Eliza Lucas develops a new in- 
dustry, 137 note 

Women's Land Army in World War, 
461, 462 

World War, before the entrance of the 
United States, 428-444; entrance of 
the United States into, 445; United 
States and the, 450-476; the armi- 
stice, 474; occupation of the Rhine 
country by the Allies, 475; surren- 
der of the German fleet, 476 

Wright, Frances, 510 

Wright brothers and the airplane, 502 

Writers, colonial, 145, 149; early Amer- 
ican, 282, 283; of the middle of the 
nineteenth century, 313, 314; re- 
cent, 504-505 

Writs of assistance, 157, 158 

"XYZ" Papers, 240 

Yale University founded, 140 
Yamassee War, 123 note 
Yellow fever, 143, 502 
York, Duke of, grant of New Nether- 
land to, 77 
York, early capital of Maine, 64 
Y.M.C.A. in World War, 462 

Zenger, Peter, trial of, 105 
Zimmermann dispatch, 444 



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